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RF Communication Circuits

Lecture 1: Transmission Lines

KAVOSHCOM
Waveguiding Structures
A wave guiding structure is one that carries a signal
(or power) from one point to another.

There are three common types:


 Transmission lines
 Fiber-optic guides
 Waveguides

2
Transmission Line
Properties
 Has two conductors running parallel
 Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
 Becomes lossy at high frequency
 Can handle low or moderate amounts of power
 Does not have signal distortion, unless there is loss
 May or may not be immune to interference
 Does not have Ez or Hz components of the fields (TEMz)

Twin lead
Coaxial cable (coax) (shown connected to a 4:1
impedance-transforming balun)
3
Transmission Line (cont.)

CAT 5 cable
(twisted pair)

The two wires of the transmission line are twisted to reduce interference and
radiation from discontinuities.

4
Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines commonly met on printed-circuit boards

w
er
h
er h w

Microstrip Stripline

w w w

er h er h

Coplanar strips Coplanar waveguide (CPW)

5
Transmission Line (cont.)
Transmission lines are commonly met on printed-circuit boards.

Microstrip line

A microwave integrated circuit

6
Fiber-Optic Guide
Properties
 Uses a dielectric rod
 Can propagate a signal at any frequency (in theory)
 Can be made very low loss
 Has minimal signal distortion
 Very immune to interference
 Not suitable for high power
 Has both Ez and Hz components of the fields

7
Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)
Two types of fiber-optic guides:

1) Single-mode fiber
Carries a single mode, as with the mode on a
transmission line or waveguide. Requires the fiber
diameter to be small relative to a wavelength.

2) Multi-mode fiber
Has a fiber diameter that is large relative to a
wavelength. It operates on the principle of total internal
reflection (critical angle effect).

8
Fiber-Optic Guide (cont.)
Higher index core region

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
9
Waveguides
Properties
 Has a single hollow metal pipe
 Can propagate a signal only at high frequency:  > c
 The width must be at least one-half of a wavelength
 Has signal distortion, even in the lossless case
 Immune to interference
 Can handle large amounts of power
 Has low loss (compared with a transmission line)
 Has either Ez or Hz component of the fields (TMz or TEz)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waveguide_(electromagnetism) 10
Transmission-Line Theory

 Lumped circuits: resistors, capacitors,


inductors
neglect time delays (phase)

 Distributed circuit elements: transmission lines

account for propagation and


time delays (phase change)

We need transmission-line theory whenever the length of


a line is significant compared with a wavelength.

11
Transmission Line
2 conductors

4 per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [/m] Dz

G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m] 12
Transmission Line (cont.)
i  z, t 

B x x x +++++++
----------
v  z, t 

Dz

i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

13
Transmission Line (cont.)
i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

i ( z, t )
v( z , t )  v( z  Dz , t )  i ( z , t ) RDz  LDz
t
v( z  Dz , t )
i ( z , t )  i ( z  Dz , t )  v( z  Dz , t ) GDz  C Dz
t
14
TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Hence

v( z  Dz , t )  v( z , t ) i ( z , t )
  Ri ( z , t )  L
Dz t
i ( z  Dz , t )  i ( z , t ) v( z  Dz , t )
 Gv( z  Dz , t )  C
Dz t

Now let Dz  0:

v i
  Ri  L
z t “Telegrapher’s
Equations”
i v
  Gv  C
z t
15
TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

v2
i   i 
 R  L  
z 2
z z  t  Switch the
order of the
i   i  derivatives.
 R  L  
z t  z 
 v 
  R  Gv  C 
 t 
 v  v2

 L  G  C
 t t  2

16
TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

v
2
 v   v  v 2

  R  Gv  C   L  G  C
z 2
 t   t t  2

Hence, we have:

v
2
v  v
2

  RG  v  ( RC  LG)  LC  0
z 2
t  t 
2

The same equation also holds for i.

17
TEM Transmission Line (cont.)

Time-Harmonic Waves:

v 2
v  v
2

  RG  v  ( RC  LG)  LC  0
z 2
t  t 
2

2
dV
  RG V  ( RC  LG ) jV  LC ( )V  0
2
2

dz

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TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
2
dV
  RG V  j ( RC  LG )V   LC V
2
2

dz

Note that

RG  j ( RC  LG)   LC  ( R  j L)(G  jC )


2

Z  R  j L = series impedance/length

Y  G  jC = parallel admittance/length

2
dV
Then we can write:  ( ZY )V
2
dz
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TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
2

  ZY dV
 ( )V
2 2
Let Then
2
dz

Solution: V ( z )  Ae  Be
 z  z

 is called the "propagation constant."

  ( R  j L)(G  jC )
1/ 2
Convention:
z z e j /2
 principal square root
    

    j   attenuation contant
  0,   0   phase constant
20
TEM Transmission Line (cont.)
Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive z direction):

V  ( z )  V0 e  z  V0 e  z e  j  z


v  ( z , t )  Re V0 e  z e  j  z  e jt 
 Re  V 0

e j e  z e  j  z e 
jt

 V0 e  z cos t   z   


The wave “repeats” when:

  2
g
t 0
g
  z Hence:
V e0

2
z 
 g

21
Phase Velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant phase), e.g., the
crest.

vp (phase velocity)

v  ( z, t )  V0  e  z cos(t   z   )

22
Phase Velocity (cont.)

Set t   z  constant
dz
 0
dt
dz 

dt 

 In expanded form:
Hence v  
p
 v 
p


Im ( R  j L)(G  jC )
1/ 2


23
Characteristic Impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the positive z direction.

V  ( z)
Z0  
I ( z)


V0

V ( z )  V0 e   z so Z0  
I0
I  ( z )  I 0  e  z
(Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)
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Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

Use Telegrapher’s Equation:

v i
  Ri  L
z t

dV
so   RI  j LI
dz
  ZI

Hence  V0 e
  z   z
  ZI 0 e

25
Characteristic Impedance Z0 (cont.)

V0 Z  Z 
1/2

From this we have: Z0      


I0   Y 

Using
Z  R  j L
Y  G  jC

1/2
We have  R  j L 
Z0   
 G  j C 

Note: The principal branch of the square root is chosen, so that Re (Z0) > 0.
26
General Case (Waves in Both Directions)
V  z   V0 e z  V0 e z
j   z  j  z j 
V e e
0

e  V e e  z e  j  z
0

wave in +z
wave in -z
direction
Note: direction

v  z, t   Re V  z  e jt 
 V0 e z cos t   z    
 V0 e z cos t   z    

27
Backward-Traveling Wave
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V  ( z) V  ( z)

 Z0 so  Z0
I ( z) 
I ( z)

Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same as
for the forward wave.

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General Case
I (z)
+
V (z)
- z

Most general case: A general superposition of forward and


backward traveling waves:

V ( z )  V0  e z  V0  e z Note: The reference


directions for voltage
1 and current are the
I ( z)  V0  e z  V0  e  z  same for forward and
Z0 backward waves.

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Summary of Basic TL formulas
I(z)
+ V(z)
-
z
V  z  V e
0
  z   z
V e
0

V0  z V0   z
I  z  e  e
Z0 Z0 guided wavelength  g
    j    R  j L  G  jC  
1
2
2

g   m
 R  j L 
1
2 
Z0   
 G  j C 
phase velocity  vp

vp  [m/s]

30
Lossless Case
R  0, G  0

    j    ( R  j L)(G  j C )
1/ 2

 j LC

 0 
so vp 
   LC 

1/2
 R  j L  L 1
Z0    Z0  vp 
 G  jC  C LC
(real and indep. of freq.) (indep. of freq.)
31
Lossless Case (cont.)
1
vp 
LC
In the medium between the two conductors is homogeneous (uniform)
and is characterized by (e, ), then we have that

LC  e (proof given later)

1
The speed of light in a dielectric medium is cd 
e

Hence, we have that v p  cd


The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is always the
speed of light (in the material).
32
Terminated Transmission Line
Terminating impedance (load)
V  z   V0e z  V0e z
I(z)
+ V(z)
ZL
Ampl. of voltage wave -
z
propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0. z=0
Ampl. of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
direction at z = 0.

Where do we assign z = 0?

The usual choice is at the load.

Note: The length l measures distance from the load:  z


33
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)
V  z  V e
0
  z
V e
0
  z

I(z)
What if we know + V(z)
ZL
-
V  and V  @ z   z
Can we use z = - l as z=0
a reference plane?

V0  V   0  V     e V     V   0  e


 V0  V   0  V     e
Hence

V  z   V     e  z    V     e  z  

34
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Terminating impedance (load)

I(z)
+ V(z)
ZL
-
z
z=0
Compare:

V  z   V   0  e z  V   0  e  z

V  z   V     e   z (  )
 V     e  z (  )

Note: This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0 to z = -l.


35
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)

V  z   V0e z  V0e z Terminating impedance (load)

I(z)
+ V(z)
What is V(-l )? ZL
-
z
V     V0e  V0e z=0

propagating propagating
forwards backwards

The current at z = - l is then

V0  V0 
I    e  e
Z0 Z0 l  distance away from load
36
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Total volt. at distance l
from the load
 V 
2 
V     V0 e  V0e  
 V0 e 1   e 
0

 V0 
Ampl. of volt. wave prop.
towards load, at the load Ampl. of volt. wave prop. L  Load reflection coefficient
position (z = 0). away from load, at the
load position (z = 0). l  Reflection coefficient at z = - l

 V0 e 1   L e 2 
Similarly,
V0 
I    e 1   L e2 
Z0 37
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z  

V    V0e 1   e 
L
2

V0 
I    e 1   L e 2 
Z0
V    Z  1   Le2 
Z    0 
I    1   L e 2

Input impedance seen “looking” towards load


at z = -l . 38
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
At the load (l = 0):

 1  L  Z L  Z0
Z  0   Z0    ZL  L 
 1  L  Z L  Z0

 1   L e2 
Recall Z     Z0  2 
 1   L e 

Thus,   Z L  Z 0  2 
 1  e 
  Z L  Z0  
Z     Z0
  Z  Z  2 
 1   L 0
e 
  Z L  Z0  
39
Terminated Transmission Line (cont.)
Simplifying, we have
  Z L  Z 0  2 
 1  e 
Z     Z0   L
Z  Z 0  Z   Z  Z    Z  Z  e 2

0 
L 0 L 0
  Z  Z  2    Z  Z    Z  Z  e 2
 1   L   L 0 L 0 
e
0

  Z L  Z0  
  Z L  Z 0  e     Z L  Z 0  e  
 Z 0  
  Z L  Z0  e   Z L  Z0  e
 

 Z cosh     Z 0 sinh   
 Z 0  L 
 Z 0 cosh     Z L sinh   

Hence, we have

 Z L  Z 0 tanh   
Z     Z 0  
 Z 0  Z L tanh   
40
Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
    j  j

V    V0e j 1   eL
2 j 

Impedance is periodic

e 1   L e2 j  with period g/2
V j
I   0

Z0
tan repeats when
 1   L e2 j 
Z     Z0  2 j    
 1  Le 
2

 Z L  jZ 0 tan    g
Z     Z 0  
 Z 0  jZ L tan   
  g / 2
Note: tanh    tanh  j   j tan   
41
Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
For the remainder of our transmission line discussion we will assume that the
transmission line is lossless.
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z  
V    V0 e j 1   e
L
2 j 
 Z L  Z0
V0 j 
L 
I    e 1   L e 2 j   Z L  Z0
Z0
2
g 
Z   
V    Z  1   L e2 j  
I   0  1   L e2 j 


 Z  jZ 0 tan    vp 
 Z 0  L 
  
 Z 0  jZ L tan   42
Matched Load
I(-l )

+
Z0 ,  V(-l ) ZL
-
l
Z  

A Matched load: (ZL=Z0)

Z L  Z0
L  0
Z L  Z0
No reflection from the load
 V    V0 e j
V0  j  Z    Z0
I    e
Z0 For any l 43
Short-Circuit Load
B Short circuit load: (ZL = 0)
0  Z0
L   1 Z0 , 
0  Z0
 Z   jZ 0 tan    l

Note:   2
g Always imaginary!  Z    jX sc
XSC X sc  Z0 tan   

inductive

/ g
0 1/4 1/2 3/4

capacitive S.C. can become an O.C.


with a g/4 trans. line
44
Using Transmission Lines to Synthesize Loads
This is very useful is microwave engineering.

A microwave filter constructed from microstrip.

45
Example
d
I(-l)
+ ZTH
+
VTH Z0   V(-l) ZL
- -
l
Zin

Find the voltage at any point on the line.

 Z L  jZ 0 tan   d  
Z in  Z  d   Z 0  
 Z 0  jZ L tan   d   + ZTH
+
VTH V(-d) Zin
 Zin  -
 V  d   VTH  
 in
Z  ZTH 
46
Example (cont.)
Note: V   V 0

e j
1   e L
2 j 

Z L  Z0
L 
Z L  Z0
At l = d :
 Zin 
V  d   V e
0
 j d
1   e L
 j 2 d
  VTH  Z  Z 
 in TH 

  Zin   j d  1 
 V  VTH  e   j 2 d 
 Zin  ZTH  1  Le
0
 
Hence

 Zin   j   d    1   L e j 2  
V     VTH  e   j 2 d 
 Z m  ZTH   1  Le 
47
Example (cont.)
 1   L e j 2  d 
Some algebra: Zin  Z  d   Z0   j 2 d 
 1   L e 

 1   L e j 2  d 
Z 0 1   L e  j 2  d 
Z0  
Z in  1   L e j 2  d 
  
Z in  ZTH  1   L e j 2  d  Z 0 1   L e  j 2  d   ZTH 1   L e  j 2  d 
Z0   j 2 d 
 ZTH
 1   L e 
Z 0 1   L e  j 2  d 

 ZTH  Z 0    L e j 2  d  Z 0  ZTH 
 Z0 

 1   L e j 2  d 

 TH
Z  Z 0   Z  ZTH 
1   L e j 2  d  0 
 TH
Z  Z 0 

 Z0 

 1   L e j 2  d 

 TH
Z  Z 0   Z  Z0 
1   L e  j 2  d  TH 
 TH
Z  Z 0 

48
Example (cont.)
Hence, we have

Zin  Z0  1   L e j 2  d 
  
Zin  ZTH  Z 0  ZTH  1   S  L e j 2  d 

ZTH  Z 0
where S 
ZTH  Z 0

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

 Z0   j   d    1   L e j 2  
V     VTH  e   j 2 d 
 Z0  ZTH   1   
S L e 

49
Example (cont.)
d
I(-l)
+ ZTH
+
VTH Z0   V(-l) ZL
- -
l
Zin

 Z0   j   d    1   L e j 2  
V     VTH  e   j 2 d 
 Z0  ZTH   1   
S L e 

Voltage wave that would exist if there were no reflections from


the load (a semi-infinite transmission line or a matched load).

50
Example (cont.)
d

+ ZTH
VTH Z0   ZL
-

Wave-bounce method (illustrated for l = d):

1   L e j 2  d    L e j 2  d   S 
 Z0   
V  d   VTH      L e   S    L e     L e   S   Le   S 
 j 2 d  j 2 d  j 2 d  j 2 d
 
 Z 0  ZTH 
  
 

51
Example (cont.)
1   L e j 2  d    L e j 2  d   S 
 Z0   
V  d   VTH      L e   S    L e  j 2  d     L e  j 2  d   S   L e  j 2  d   S 
 j 2 d

 Z 0  ZTH  
  
 

1     e j 2  d      e j 2  d 2  
 L S L S

 Z0  
V  d   VTH     e  j 2 d 
1     e  j 2 d
     e 
 j 2 d 2
 
 Z 0  ZTH
L L S L S
 
  
 

Geometric series:

1
 zn  1 z  z2 
n 0

1 z
, z 1 z   L  S e j 2  d

52
Example (cont.)
Hence
 1 
  j 2 d 
 Z0  1   L  s e 
V  d   VTH  
 Z 0  ZTH    e j 2  d  1 
   j 2 d 
 1   Lse
L
  

or
 Z 0   1   L e j 2  d 
V  d   VTH    j 2 d 
 0
Z  Z TH   1   
L s e 

This agrees with the previous result (setting l = d).

Note: This is a very tedious method – not recommended.

53
Quarter-Wave Transformer

 Z L  jZ0T tan   Z0 Z0T ZL


Zin  Z0T  
 0T
Z  jZ L tan  
Zin
g
2 g 
   
4 g 4 2
in  0  Zin  Z 0
Z 02T
 jZ 0T   Z0 
 Zin  Z 0T   ZL
 jZ L  This requires ZL to be real.

so
2
Z Hence
Zin  0T

Z 0T   Z 0 Z L 
1/2
ZL
54
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
I(-l )

V    V0 e j 1   e 
L
2 j 

Z0 , 
+
V(-l ) ZL
V e 0
 j
1   e e 
L
jL 2 j 
-
l

V    V0 1   L e jL e  j 2  1+  L
V ( z)
1 V0

Vmax  V0 1   L  1-  L

Vmin  V0 1   L  Dz   / 2
z
z0

Vmax
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio  VSWR  
Vmin
1 L
VSWR 
1 L 55

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