Theories of Motivation

Motivation
Planning Ahead
 What is motivation?
 What are the different types of individual needs?
 What are the process theories of motivation?
 What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 What are the challenges of motivation in the new

workplace?
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Study Question 1: What is motivation?
 Basic motivational concepts

– Motivation—the forces within the individual that
account for the level, direction, and persistence of
effort expended at work.
– Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the
individual
– Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to
someone by another person.
– Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur
naturally as a person works on a task.
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 To achieve maximum motivational potential in

linking rewards to performance …
– Respect diversity and individual differences to best
understand what people want from work.
– Allocate rewards to satisfy the interests of both

individuals and the organization.
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 Types of motivation theories

– Content theories
• Human needs and how people with different needs may
respond to different work situations.
– Process theories
• How people give meaning to rewards and make decisions on
various work-related behaviors.
– Reinforcement theory
• How people’s behavior is influenced by environmental
consequences.
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Study Question 2: What are the different types
of individual needs?
 Needs
– Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of
an individual.
– Explain workplace behavior and attitudes.
– Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior.
– Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need
satisfaction.
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 Types of content theories:
• Hierarchy of needs theory
• ERG theory
• Two-factor theory
• Acquired needs theory

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 Hierarchy of needs theory
– Developed by Abraham Maslow.
– Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace
behavior and attitudes.
– Lower-order needs:
• Physiological, safety, and social needs.
• Desires for physical and social well being.
– Higher-order needs:
• Esteem and self-actualization needs.
• Desire for psychological growth and development.
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 Hierarchy of needs theory

– Deficit principle
• A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior.
– Progression principle
• A need at one level does not become activated until
the next lower-level need is satisfied.
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Figure 14.1 Opportunities for satisfaction
in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs.
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 ERG theory
– Developed by Clayton Alderfer.
– Three need levels:
• Existence needs — desires for physiological and
material well-being.
• Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying
interpersonal relationships.
• Growth needs — desires for continued
psychological growth and development.
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 ERG theory
– Any/all needs can influence behavior at one
time.
– Frustration-regression principle.
• An already satisfied lower-level need becomes
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.
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 Two-factor theory
– Developed by Frederick Herzberg.
– Hygiene factors:
• Elements of the job context.
• Sources of job dissatisfaction.
– Satisfier factors:
• Elements of the job content.
• Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
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Figure 14.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
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 Acquired needs theory

– Developed by David McClelland.
– People acquire needs through their life
experiences.
– Needs that are acquired:
• Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Need for Power (nPower)
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)
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– Need for Achievement (nAch)
• Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to
solve problems, or to master complex tasks.
– People high in (nAch) prefer work that:
• Involves individual responsibility for results.
• Involves achievable but challenging goals.
• Provides feedback on performance.
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– Need for Power (nPower)
• Desire to control other persons, to influence their
behavior, or to be responsible for other people.
• Personal power versus social power.
– People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
• Involves control over other persons.
• Has an impact on people and events.
• Brings public recognition and attention.
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– Need for Affiliation (nAff)
• Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
relations with other persons.
– People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
• Involves interpersonal relationships.
• Provides for companionship
• Brings social approval.
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 Questions for summarizing the content

theories of motivation:
– How many different individual needs are there?
– Can a work outcome or reward satisfy more
than one need?
– Is there a hierarchy of needs?
– How important are the various needs?
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Figure 14.3 Comparison of Maslow’s, Alderfer’s,
Herzberg’s, and McClelland’s motivation theories.
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Study Question 3: What are the process
theories of motivation?
 Process theories of motivation …
– How people make choices to work hard or not.
– Choices are based on:
• Individual preferences.
• Available rewards.
• Possible work outcomes.
 Types of process theories:
– Equity theory.
– Expectancy theory.
– Goal-setting theory.
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 Equity theory
– Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
– When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation.
• Perceived inequity.
• Perceived equity.
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Figure 14.4 Equity theory and the role of
social comparison.
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 Equity theory
– People respond to perceived negative inequity
by changing …
• Work inputs.
• Rewards received.
• Comparison points.
• Situation.
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 Managerial implications of equity theory—
– Underpaid people experience anger.
– Overpaid people experience guilt.
– Perceptions of rewards determine motivational
outcomes.
– Negative consequences of equity comparisons should
be minimized, if not eliminated.
– Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of
equity controversies in the workplace.
• Gender equity.
• Comparable worth.
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 Expectancy theory
– Developed by Victor Vroom.
– Key expectancy theory variables:
• Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in
desired level of performance.
• Instrumentality — belief that successful
performance will be followed by rewards.
• Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and
other work related outcomes.
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Figure 14.5 Elements in the expectancy
theory of motivation.
Management - Chapter 14 27
 Expectancy theory
– Motivation (M), expectancy (E),
instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related
to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
M=ExIxV
– If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will
be low.
 Managerial implications of expectancy

theory—
– To maximize expectancy, managers should:
• Select workers with ability.
• Train workers to use ability.
• Support work efforts.
• Clarify performance goals.

theory—
– To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
• Clarify psychological contracts.
• Communicate performance-outcome possibilities.
• Identify rewards that are contingent on performance.

theory—
– To maximize valence in a positive direction,
managers should:
• Identify individual needs.
• Adjust rewards to match individual needs.
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Figure 14.6 Managerial implications of
expectancy theory.
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 Goal-setting theory
– Developed by Edwin Locke.
– Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly
motivating.
– Motivational effects of task goals:
• Provide direction to people in their work.
• Clarify performance expectations.
• Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
• Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
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 Key issues and principles in the goal-setting
process:
– Set specific goals.
– Set challenging goals.
– Build goal acceptance and commitment.
– Clarify goal priorities.
– Provide feedback on goal accomplishment.
– Reward goal accomplishment.
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 Goal-setting theory
– Participation in goal setting …
• Unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting.
• Management by objectives (MBO) promotes
participation.
• When participation is not possible, workers will
respond positively if supervisory trust and support
exist.
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Study Question 4: What role does
reinforcement play in motivation?
 Fundamentals of reinforcement theory …
– Reinforcement theory focuses on the impact of external
environmental consequences on behavior.
– Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on
future behavior.
– Operant conditioning:
• Developed by B.F. Skinner.
• Applies law of effect to control behavior by
manipulating its consequences.
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 Operant conditioning strategies:

– Positive reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence.
– Negative reinforcement
• Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence.
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 Operant conditioning strategies:

– Punishment
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant
consequence.
– Extinction
• Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
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 Successful implementation of positive

reinforcement is based on …
– Law of contingent reinforcement —
• Reward delivered only if desired behavior is
exhibited.
– Law of immediate reinforcement —
• More immediate the delivery of a reward,
the more reinforcement value it has.
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 Guidelines for using positive reinforcement:
– Clearly identify desired work behaviors.
– Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards.
– Inform everyone about what must be done to
get rewards.
– Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards.
– Follow the laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
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Figure 14.7 Applying reinforcement
strategies: case of total quality management.
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 Schedules of reinforcement:
– Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs.
– Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically.
– Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement.
– Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent.
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 Guidelines for using punishment:

– Tell the person what is being done wrong.
– Tell the person what is being done right.
– Match the punishment to the behavior.
– Administer punishment in private.
– Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement.
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 Ethical issues in reinforcement:

– Ignores individuality.
– Restricts freedom of choice.
– Ignores the possibility of other types of motivation.
 Key concern is whether it is ethical to not control
behavior well enough to serve both individual and
organizational goals.
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Study Question 5: What are the challenges of
motivation in the new workplace?
 Integrated model of motivation
– Motivation leads to work effort that, when combined
with appropriate individual abilities and organizational
support, leads to performance accomplishment.
– The motivational impact of any rewards received for
this performance accomplishment depends on equity
and reinforcement considerations.
– Ultimately, satisfaction with rewards should lead to
increased motivation to work hard in the future.
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Figure 14.8 An integrated approach to
motivational dynamics.
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 Pay for performance
– Paying people for performance is consistent with:
• Equity theory.
• Expectancy theory.
• Reinforcement theory.
– Merit pay
• Awards a pay increase in proportion to individual performance
contributions.
• Provides performance contingent reinforcement.
• May not succeed due to weakness in performance appraisal
system or lack of consistency in application.
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 Incentive compensation systems:

– Skill-based pay.
• Links pay to the number of job-relevant skills an
employee masters.
– Bonus pay plans.
• One-time or lump-sum payments based on the
accomplishment of specific performance targets or
some extraordinary contribution.
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 Incentive compensation systems:

– Profit-sharing plans.
• Some or all employees receive a proportion of net
profits earned by the organization.
– Gain-sharing plans.
• Groups of employees share in any savings realized through
their efforts to reduce costs and increase productivity.
– Employee stock ownership plans.

• Employees own stock in the company that employs them.
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Theories of Motivation

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Motivation

 What are the different types of individual needs?

 What are the process theories of motivation?

 What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

 What are the challenges of motivation in the new

 Basic motivational concepts

 To achieve maximum motivational potential in

– Allocate rewards to satisfy the interests of both

 Types of motivation theories

 Types of content theories:

• Hierarchy of needs theory

• Acquired needs theory

 Hierarchy of needs theory

 Acquired needs theory

 Acquired needs theory

 Acquired needs theory

 Questions for summarizing the content

 Managerial implications of expectancy

 Managerial implications of expectancy

 Managerial implications of expectancy

 Operant conditioning strategies:

 Operant conditioning strategies:

 Successful implementation of positive

 Guidelines for using punishment:

 Ethical issues in reinforcement:

 Incentive compensation systems:

 Incentive compensation systems:

– Employee stock ownership plans.

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