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“Nothing in biology makes sense
except in the light of evolution”
P.A.Naidu,
sarubujjili.
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Biochemistry 441
Lecture 14
Ted Young
February 5, 2007
The utility of complementarity
Denaturation and renaturation of nucleic acids
First midterm exam on Wednesday
Room assignment:
Students with last names beginning AK
Kane 110
Students with last names beginning LZ
Kane 210
Exam will cover material on lectures 110.
Open Study Time with the TAs:Tuesday, February 6th:Room:
HSB BB1602; Time: 10:00am to 1:50pm
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Summary of Lecture 13
DNA structure is deceptively simple and
repetitive
B form DNA is the predominant form that
exists in nature
RNA structure is exceedingly complex; the
structure of relatively few RNA molecules
is known. Accurate predictions of the
secondary structure of RNA is
difficult/impossible.
The complex structure of RNA allows it to
have multiple roles in biologyincluding
enzymatic functionswhich were probably
important during evolution. 6
Denaturation of nucleic acids: ds DNA
The forces that hold
the two strands of
DNA together are all
weak forces and
therefore the two
strands can be easily
separated.
Common denaturing agents in the lab:
Heat, high pH, and strong Hbonding agents
such as urea and formamide. ((Why not water?))
Why not low pH?
To function in vivo as a template for DNA and RNA synthesis the
two strands must be separated using enzymes 7
Denaturation of nucleic acids: ds DNA
The denaturation or
“melting” of double
stranded DNA occurs
over a very narrow
temperature range,
indicating that it is a
highly cooperative
process.
The temperature at the
midpoint of the
melting curve is
known as its melting
temperature or Tm.
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Energetics of denaturation
∆G = ∆H T∆S
helix coil
One molecule two molecules,
Few conformations many conformations
For the helix to be stable ∆G must be >0.
∆S = Scoil S helix > 0 therefore T∆S is negative.
Therefore, for the helix to be stable ∆H must be larger in
a positive sense than T∆S is negative. ∆H > T∆S
∆H is positive because there are strong interactions
between basesboth Hbonds and base stacking due to
van der Waals interactions between the bases.
These must be stronger than the repulsive forces of the
negatively charged phosphates which are partially neutralized by interaction
with Na+, K+ and positively charged Lys and Arg of the histone proteins. 9
Energetics of denaturationcontinued
As the Temperature increases, ∆G approaches 0.
At the Tm, ∆G = 0 and Tm = ∆H/∆S.
∆H depends on base sequence and composition whereas
∆S does not; therefore helices with higher G+C content
(3 bp versus 2 for AT pairs; and more stacking of
GC pairs) will have a higher melting temperature
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Basepairing in nucleic acids
Standard Watson
Crick base pairs
Note that for both G/C and A/T
bp the hydrogen bond donors
and acceptors shown are the
only ones possible if the
positions of the C1’ atoms
maintain the geometry of the B
helix. Other pairing can occur
in unusual DNA structuresfor
example at the ends of
chromosomes Hoogsteen base
paired “Gquartets” are found. 11
Basepairing in nucleic acidsevidence
for pairing in solution
Infrared
spectra
of bases
NH region
of the
spectrum.
Only for G+C does the IR spectrum change, implying that
the NH bonds are altered; this change is seen only for
standard
WatsonCrick basepairs: GC and AT; not G+T, A+C, T+C, 12
Basestacking plays an important role in
stabilizing doublestranded DNA
Studies of the osmotic pressure, π, of solutions of “free”
bases demonstrates that they aggregate.
π = RTm where R=gas constant, T=temp, m=molal
concentrationa measure of the number of
molecules in solution.
For substances that
aggregate:
π= φRTm, where φ=osmotic coefficient (which has a value
between 0 and 1); in other words, the effective number of
molecules in solution is reduced by aggregration, and this
reduces the osmolarity. 13
Evidence for base stacking in solution
The reduction in φ is not
due to Hbonding between
bases since N6,N6 methyl
adenine can’t Hbond and
shows the greatest
reduction in φ.
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Tm can be used to characterize DNA
from different organisms
Melting temperature is
affected by (G+C)
content, ionic strength, 0.015 M NaCl
0.0015M Na Citrate
and solutes that affect
hydrophobic and H
bonding interactions. In
general, agents that
disrupt Hbinds or base
stacking
_(increase/decrease)______
the Tm. Low ionic
strength (dashed curve) _
_(increases/decreases)______
_______ it. 15
Tm continued
Tm does not depend on size of the DNA
afer a certain size is reached.
For short oligonucleotides :
Tm~1.5o(A+T) + 3.5o (G+C) in
o
centrigrade. A,T,G,C=number of bp.
For a large DNA of ~50%(G+C) Tm ~ 85o
so obviously the relation fails after a certain
size. Determine an approximate upper limit
for this equation.
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Structure of denatured DNA
Rapidly cooling of denatured
DNA leads to imperfectly
base paired single strands of
DNA. The figure illustrates
intrastrand basepairing that
has normal W/C
complementarity and
orientation.
Questions to consider:
About how much base pairing would occur
when a DNA solution is rapidly cooled?
Would all denatured DNA molecules form the
same structure?
Would both strands of a double helix form the
same structure?
Would single strands of DNA and RNA of the
same sequence form the same structure? 17
Intercalating dyes can distinguish
doublestranded from singlestranded
DNA in cells
Red luminescence
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Green fluorescence
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Acridine orange binds to DNA and RNA
in the cell
Nucleus and
nucleoli
This method can
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detect denaturation
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DNADNA and DNARNA
hybridization
Singlestranded nucleic acid molecules
that are completely or even partially
complementary will react with one
another via hydrogenbonding to form
stable doublestranded molecules.
radioactive
heat
+ +
(DNA or RNA) Stability: 20
EM of partially denatured DNA
“Annealing” or hybridization of
two related but not completely
complementary singlestranded
DNA or RNA molecules would
Produce a similar picture; the
locationand size of the single
Stranded regions would identify the
location and extent of sequence
divergence.
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Annealing of nucleic acids is important
in most experimental manipulations in
the laboratory
DNA sequencing/DNA synthesis to make probes
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
oligonucleotide mutagenesis
creating recombinant DNA molecules
detecting/measuring DNA/RNA isolated from cells
determining relatedness between species (formerly)
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Separation and reannealing of DNA
strands is important in vivo
Every process we talk about (with one
exception) involves separation of DNA
strands and rewinding of the helix.
Since strand separation involves putting
energy into the system, enzymes and
proteins are involved in unwinding of the
DNA.
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