Iron carbon diagram form the basis of heat

treatments:
Heat
Treatment
Heat Treatment is defined as an operation or combination of
operation, involving heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in its solid
•
state with the object of changing the characteristics of the material.
• The amount of carbon present in plain carbon steel has a pronounced
effect on the properties of steel and on the selection of suitable heat
treatments to attain certain desired properties.
• Steels can be heat treated to produce a great variety of
microstructures and properties. Generally, heat treatment uses phase
transformation during heating and cooling to change a microstructure
in a solid state.
Why we apply heat treatment
process?:-
• Cause relief of internal stresses developed during cold working, welding,
casting, forging etc.
•
Harden and strengthen metals.
•
Improve machinability
•
Change grain size
•
Soften metals for further (cold) working as in wire drawing or cold rolling.
• Improve ductility and toughness
• Increase, heat, wear and corrosion resistance of materials.
• Improve electrical and magnetic properties.
• Homogenize the structure to remove coring.
• Spheroidise tiny particles, such as those of Fe₃C in steel, by diffusion.
Heat Treatment Theory
The various types of heat-treating processes are
similar because they all involve the heating and
cooling of metals; they differ in the heating
temperatures and the cooling rates used and the
final results.
Ferrous metals (metals with iron) are annealing,
normalizing, hardening, and tempering.
Nonferrous metals can be annealed, but never
tempered, normalized, or case-hardened.
 Heat-Treatment
Heat treatment is a method used to alter the
physical, and sometimes chemical properties of a
material. The most common application is
metallurgical
It involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to
extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result
such as hardening or softening of a material
It applies only to processes where the heating and
cooling are done for the specific purpose of
altering properties intentionally

2
Stages of Heat
Treatment:-
Stage l-Heating the metal slowly to ensure a uniform temperature.
• Stage 2-Soaking (holding) the metal at a given temperature for a
given period of time.
• Internal structural changes take place.
• soaking period depends on the chemical analysis of the metal and the
mass of the part
• Stage 3-Cooling the metal to room temperature.
• To cool the metal, you can place it in direct contact with a COOLING
MEDIUM composed of a gas, liquid, solid, or combination of these.
Stages of Heat Treatment
 Stages of Heat Treatment

• Soaking
- Internal structural changes take place.
- soaking period depends on the chemical
analysis of the metal and the mass of the part.
• Cooling Stage
- To cool the metal, you can place it in direct
contact with a COOLING MEDIUM composed
of a gas, liquid, solid, or combination of these.
 Stages of Heat Treatment

• Soaking Period
Table 1: Soaking period for Hardening, Annealing and
Normalizing Steel.
Iron carbon diagram form the basis of heat
treatments:
• If C = 0.8%, the steel with only pearlite is called eutectoid steel;
• if the carbon content is lower than 0.8%, the steel is called
hypo-eutectoid steel;
• if the carbon content is higher than 0.8%, the steel is called
hyper-eutectoid steel.
• The building steel is the hypo-eutectoid steel.
Constituents of steel &
Iron
1. Ferrite
Iron which contain little or no carbon is called ferrite.
The maximum solubility carbon in iron is 0.02% at 7230C.
Its very soft and ductile that’s called alpha(ἁ) iron.
2. Cementite
This is definite carbide of iron (Fe3C) which is extremely hard, being
harder than ordinary harden steel or glass.
Its presence in iron maximum percent of carbon is 6.67% or 8%.
Its intermediate compound which contain 93.3% Fe.
 Cont.
3.…Pearlite
Its mixture of ferrite and cementite,

Ferrite (87.5%) Cementite (12.5%) Pearlite

Pearlite is eutectoid of steel.

4. Martensite
This is brittle mass of fibrous or needle like structure & the chief
constituent of hardened steel.
Its produced by the rapid quenching of high carbon steel from a slightly
high temp than the max temp of critical interval.
Cont.
…
5. Austenite-
The solid solution of gamma() iron is called austenite.
Its formed when carbon steel with more than 1.1% carbon is
quenched rapidly from about 11450C.

6. Bainite
Its formed from austenite in temp range below 5300C.
Its like pearlite mixture of ferrite & iron carbide but in different form.
Its harder, tougher & stronger than ferrite –pearlite.
 Annealing
Heat processes:
treatment - Normalizing
• Annealing

Heat treatment processes:-

• Normalizing
• Hardening Hardening

• Tempering
• Surface hardening: Tempering
• Case hardening(carburizing)
a) Nitriding
Surface hardening
b) Cyaniding
c) Flame hardening Case
hardening(carbu
rizing)
1. Annealing- It’s the process of heating the steel slightly
above the
critical temperature of steel i.e. 7230C & it to cool down ver
allowing y
slowly.
•Purposes
To softenof
theannealing:-
metals
• To improve machinability
• To refine grain size due to phase recrystallization.
• To increase ductility of metal
• To prepare steel for subsequent treatment.
• To modify electrical and magnetic properties.
• To receive internal stresses.
• To remove gases.
• To produce a definite microstructure.
Classificatio of Annealin
n g

Annealing

Full Bright Box Isothermal Spheroidise Sub-critical

anneali Annealing Anneali Annealing Annealing Annealing
ng ng
a. Full Annealing/Conventional
Annealing
 Steel is heated 30 C-50 C above upper critical temperature at sufficient
0 0

time to allow the material to fully form austenite.

 After the above Austenization it slowly cooled in furnace & percentage
of carbon is 0.3% - 0.6%.
910 Acm
 The steel is heated above A3 (for hypo-eutectoid steels) & A1 (for C F
hyper-eutectoid steels) → (hold) → then the steel is furnace cooled to An ull
A3 ne
a li
obtain Coarse Pearlite. ng
723C Full
 Coarse Pearlite has low (↓) Hardness but high (↑) Ductility. Annealing
 For hyper-eutectoid steels the heating is not done above Acm to avoid a A1
continuous network of proeutectoid cementite along prior Austenite
grain boundaries (presence of cementite along grain boundaries
provides easy path for crack propagation). 
Advantages- T

1.Refine grain
2.Remove strains
Wt% C
3.Improve formability. 0.8
%
b. Bright
Annealing
Its critical production process.
If proper annealing is not
done tube surface can crack,
stained and may lead to easy
corrosion.
In this process the stainless
tube is heated to this high
temp in presence of inert
gases like nitrogen.
Tube surface must be cleared
& free of foreign matter.
 c. Box
Annealing
• Annealing a metal or alloy in a
sealed container under conditions
that minimize oxidation. In box
annealing a ferrous alloy, the
charge is usually heated slowly to
a temperature below the
transformation range, but
sometimes above or it,
ed slowly; this process within and
is also called close annealing or
pot annealing.
d. Isothermal
Annealing
• Its process is hypoeutectoid steel is heated above the upper critical
temp due to structure rapidly convert into austenite form.
• Then steel cooled lower critical temp is 6000C- 7000C
Purpose
1. Improved machinability
2. Better surface finish & homogeneous structure.
e. Spheroidise
Annealing
 This is a very specific heat treatment
given to high carbon steel requiring
extensive machining prior to final
hardening & tempering. The main
purpose of the treatment is to increase
the ductility of the sample.
 Like stress relief annealing the
treatment is done just below 7230C.
f. Sub-critical
•Annealing
Sub-critical annealing is also known as ‘Process annealing’.
• Process mainly suited for low carbon steel.
• Components are heated above the recrystallization temp.
• The aim of process annealing is to restored ductility of the
cold worked material.
Deformed crystal Undeformed crystal
Recrystallization annealing
• Application:-
1. Casting
2. Forging
3. Press work
4. Rolled stock.
2. Normalizin
g
 The sample is heat above A3 | Acm to complete
io
Austenization. The sample is then air cooled to 910 z at Acm
No a li
obtain Fine pearlite. Fine pearlite has a reasonably C n rm
r m
ali A3 No
z
a ti
good hardness and ductility. o n

 In hypo-eutectoid steels normalizing is done 50 C 723C

above the annealing temperature. A
1

Purpose
1. To reduce segregation in casting or forgings

2. To harden the steel slightly T
3. Modification of steel grain structure easily.
4. Refine grain structure prior to hardening
Wt% C
0.8
%
3.Hardenin
g
The sample is heated above A3 | Acm to cause
 Austenization. The sample is then quenched Acm
at a cooling rate higher than the critical 910

in
H

n
C

de
cooling rate. ng a r de

ar
A3 ni

H
g
 The quenching process produces residual
Full
strains (thermal, phase transformation). 723C
Annealing A1
 The transformation to Martensite is usually
not complete and the sample will have some
retained Austenite.
 The Martensite produced is hard and brittle 
and tempering operation usually follows T
hardening. This gives a good combination of
strength and toughness.
Wt% C
0.8
Cont.…
 Purpose:-
1.Reduce brittleness
2. Relieves internal stresses
3.Improve wear resistance.
• Quenched media
1.Water
2. Brine solution
3. Oil
4.Air Blast
5. Molten Salt
4.
Tempering
• It consist of heating quenched, hardened steel in martensitic
condition to some predetermined temperature between room temp
& the critical temp of the steel for a certain length of the time
followed by air cooling.
• Heating a hardened steel below the lower critical temperature.
• Cooling the steel either rapidly or slowly susceptible to temper
brittleness.
4.
Tempering • Stages:-
1. Stage I (500 C-2000 C)
1. Increase toughness
• Purpose:- 2. Stage II (2000 C-3000 C)
2. Decrease hardness
3. Stage III (4000 C-7500 C)
3. Stabilize structure
4. Improve ductility
5. Increase percentage of
elongation
• Types:-
1. Low temp
2. Medium temp
3. High temp
a. Martempering & Austempering
 These processes have been developed to avoid residual
stresses generated during quenching. 800 Eutectoid temperature

723 Austenite

 In both these processes Austenized steel is Pearlite

600
quenched above Ms (say to a temperature T1) for  + Fe3C
500 Pearlite + Bainite
homogenization of temperature across the sample.

T→
400 Bainite

 In Martempering the steel is then quenched and 300

T1
Ms
the entire sample transforms simultaneously to 200 Austempering
martensite. This is followed by tempering. Mf
100
Martempering Martensite

0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105

 In Austempering instead of quenching the sample, t (s) →
it is held at T1 for it to transform to Bainite.
Surface Heat
treatments
Case-hardening or surface hardening is
•
the process of hardening the surface of
a metal object while allowing the metal
deeper underneath to remain soft, thus
forming a thin layer of harder metal
(called the "case") at the surface.
• Types
a. Flame hardening
b. Induction Hardening
c. Case Hardening (Carburizing)
d. Nitriding
e. Cyniding
Example
a. Flame
hardening
• Gas flames raise the temperature of the
outer surface above the upper critical
temperature.
• The core will heat by conduction.
• Water jet quench the components.
Advantages:-
1. Very cheap method
2. Very suitable for hardening
3. Used to very big parts.
Disadvantages:-
1. Irregular shape part difficult to hardening.
2. Its poor surface property

Example
b. Induction
hardening
• Induction hardening is a form of heat treatment in which a metal part is heated
by induction heating and then quenched. And its suitable for circular parts only.
• It involves processes are:-
1. Heat by alternative magnetic field. Immediate quench by water.
2.
• Advantages:-
1. Fast & clean operation
2. Low cost operation
3. Tough & hard case obtained
4. Apply both internal & external surface
• Application:-
1. Automobile shaft & crank Shaft
2. Automobile parts.
3.Piston rod & spur gear.
c.
Carburizing
• Carburizing, also referred to as Case Hardening, is a heat treatment process that
produces a surface which is resistant to wear, while maintaining toughness and
strength of the core.
• This treatment is applied to low carbon steel parts after machining, as well as high
alloy steel bearings, gears, and other components.
• Types:-
1.Pack carburizing- placed metal into charcoal & 10% barium carbonate. Case is 0.25-6 mm.
2. Gas carburizing- gas uses is CO, N2, H2. case is 0.25-1 mm
Advantages:-
Disadvantages:-
1. Quick type of process 1. Carburizing salt very
2. Distortion is very small poisonous
3. Rapid heat transfer 2. Cleaning of complex
part difficult.
4. Any shape can be treated.
 d.
•Nitriding
Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into surfac
the e
• of a metal to create a case-hardened surface.
• These processes
case thickness are &
is 0.001 most commonly
0.002 inch, temp used
range on low-carbon,
is 6000C. low-alloy steels.
• Nitriding components precipitate out
1.Gas Nitriding:- heat in Ammonia
2. Liquid Nitriding:- Dip in molten cyanide bath.
Properties:- Applications:-
1. Hardness is high 1.Valve seats, guides, gears,
gauges, ball races
2. Good corrosion resistance 2.Aircraft engine, aero engine
3. Less coefficient of friction. cylinder.
e. Cyanidin
g
• Both carbon and nitrogen absorbs in this
• process.
• Produce thin shell is 0.25-0.75 mm. in molten
Low carbon steel is heated between sodium
• 800 0C to 8900C

cyanide.
• For more hardenability after proces materia directl
Main drawback is cyanide is very
cyaniding s l y
poisonous.
quenched into water or oil.
Applications:-
1.Nuts and Bolts, gears,
screws.
 Quenching:

• Depending on how fast steel must be quenched (from IT diagram), the

heat treater will determine type of quenching required:
– Water (most severe)
– Oil
– Molten Salt
– Gas/ Air (least severe)
– Brine (water and salt solution)
– Many phases in between!!! Ex: add water/polymer to water reduces quench
time! Adding 10% sodium hydroxide or salt will have twice the cooling rate!
What are the different types of quenching
media for steel.?
1.Air
•Air quenching is used for cooling some highly alloyed steels. When you use still air,
each tool or part should be placed on a suitable rack so the air can reach all sections of
the piece. Parts cooled with circulated air are placed in the same manner and arranged
for uniform cooling. Compressed air is used to concentrate the cooling on specific areas
of a part. The airlines must be free of moisture to prevent cracking of the metal.
•Although nonferrous metals are usually quenched in water, pieces that are too large to
fit into the quench tank can be cooled with forced-air drafts; however, an air quench
should be used for nonferrous metal only when the part will not be subjected to severe
corrosion conditions and the required strength and other physical properties can be
developed by a mild quench.
 2. Oil
• Oil is used to quench high-speed and oil-hardened steels and is preferred for all
other steels provided that the required hardness can be obtained. Practically any
type of quenching oil is obtainable, including the various animal oils, fish oils,
vegetable oils, and mineral oils. Oil is classed as an intermediate quench. It has a
slower cooling rate than brine or water and a faster rate than air. The quenching oil
temperature should be kept within a range of 80°F to 150°F.
• Water usually collects in the bottom of oil tanks but is not harmful in small amounts.
In large quantities it can interfere with the quenching operations; for example, the
end of a long piece may extend into the water at the bottom of the tank and crack as
a result of the more rapid cooling.
• Nonferrous metals are not routinely quenched in oil unless specifications call for oil
quenching.
 3. Brine
• Brine is the result of dissolving common rock salt in water. This mixture reduces the
absorption of atmospheric gases that, in turn, reduces the amount of bubbles. As a
result, brine wets the metal surface and cools it more rapidly than water. In addition
to rapid and uniform cooling, the brine removes a large percentage of any scale that
may be present.
• The brine solution should contain from 7% to 10% salt by weight or three-fourths
pound of salt for each gallon of water. The correct temperature range for a brine
solution is 65°F to 100°F.
• Low-alloy and carbon steels can be quenched in brine solutions; however, the rapid
cooling rate of brine can cause cracking or stress in high-carbon or low-alloy steels
that are uneven in cross section.
• Because of the corrosive action of salt on nonferrous metals, these metals are not
quenched in brine.
 4. Water

• Water can be used to quench some forms of steel, but does not produce
good results with tool or other alloy steels. Water absorbs large
quantities of atmospheric gases, and when a hot piece of metal is
quenched, these gases have a tendency to form bubbles on the surface
of the metal. These bubbles tend to collect in holes or recesses and can
cause soft spots that later lead to cracking or warping.
• The water in the quench tank should be changed daily or more often if
required. The quench tank should be large enough to hold the part being
treated and should have adequate circulation and temperature control.
The temperature of the water should not exceed 65°F.