Public Organization: Classical and

Contemporary Theories and

Concepts

Mirza Faran Baig

 II. Public Organization: Classical and
Contemporary Theories and Concepts
• Bureaucracy; Scientific Management; The
Human Relations; Leadership, Motivation,
• Network Governance; Strategic Management;
Public Choice; Administrative Culture;
• Types of Organizational Structure;
Organization of Federal, Provincial, and Local
• Government in Pakistan; Administrative
Culture of Pakistan;
• Inter-governmental Relations at Federal and
Provincial level in Pakistan.
Bureaucracy;
 Bureaucracy;
Weber’s characteristics of an ideal-type bureaucracy:
 Hierarchy of authority
 Impersonality
 Written rules and procedures
 Promotion based on achievement
 Specialized division of labor
 Efficiency
 Cases
 Bureaucracy;

 Cases
 Administrative Staff
 Career Orientation
 Meritocracy
 Private official Dichotomy
 Systemization of official relations
 Fixed Jurisdictions
LIMITITATIONS OF BUREAUCRACY
Max Weber has also suggested ways to curb
bureaucracy from becoming a giant and arbitrary
power. Those are:

1) Collegiality (relationship between colleagues)

2) Separation of powers
3) Amateur administration:
4) Direct Democracy:
5) Representation:
Leadership
 Max Weber (1864-1920)
Weber classifies Authority according to the
legitimacy of their power and uses three basic
classifications:

 Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or

outstanding characteristic of the individual.

 Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs.

 Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of

rules.

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 Leadership
• A leader may be defined as a person who
establishes vision, sets goals, motivates people
and obtains their commitment to achieve the
goals and realize the vision
(Vikas Khandewal)

• leadership is the process of directing and

influencing the task-related activities of group
members.
 Administrative Leadership
• Leadership involves (other people employees
or followers).
• Their willingness to accept directions from the
leader.
• Group members help define the leader’s
status and make the leadership process
possible;
• Without people to lead, all the leadership
qualities of a manager would be irrelevant.
 Administrative Leadership
• Leadership involves an Unequal distribution of
power between leaders and group members.
• Group members are not powerless; they can
and do shape group activities in a number of
ways.
• Leader will usually have more power.
• Where does a manager’s power come from?
• The five bases of a administrative power are:
– Legitimate power;
– Reward power;
– Coercive power;
– Referent power and
– Expert power.
 Legitimate Power
• This is the power that a leader has when the
followers believe that the leader has “a right”
to instruct them and that they have an
obligation to follow instructions.
• Legitimate power is created by the leader’s job
title (such as captain, doctor, or area
manager), combined with the follower’s belief
that the job title gives the leader the right to
give them orders.
 Reward Power
• Exercised when the leader is able to offer a reward to his
followers for completing tasks.
• Rewards can take a variety of forms from chocolates, gift
vouchers and holidays to promotions, commission and pay
rises.
• This reward will only be effective if ;
– Appeals to the followers and is according to their needs.
– The followers have to believe that the leader will give
them the reward promised once the task is completed
by them.
– Proportionate to the task the follower has to complete
 Reward Power
– Needs to be used carefully to prevent followers
becoming accustomed to rewards and refusing to
complete routine tasks without a reward.
– Rewards should not be offered, to follower employees
to complete duties which are a normal part of their
role.
– Under a contractual obligation to complete these
tasks and they are already rewarded for this through
their salary.
– Frequent use can reduce the impact or influence that
offering a reward initially had on the follower.
Followers will soon tire of the reward especially if the
reward is small.
 Coercive Power
• Opposite of reward power.
• Coercive power requires followers to believe that
the leader has the ability to impose the stated
penalty.
• Coercive power is used when followers do not
undertake the action required, the leader will
impose a penalty.
• Penalties take a variety of forms: withdrawal of
privileges, job losses, verbal admonish, and
delayed or loss of promotion.
• The leader will need to choose the penalty
carefully.
 Coercive Power
• The penalty has to be something that the followers
do not want to have imposed on them e.g. making
telephone calls from office.
• Penalty should be proportionate to the action not
completed by the follower. (e.g. it would be
disproportionate to fire an employee/follower the
first time they do not return from their lunch break
at the stated time.)
• Coercive powers should be used carefully; overuse
can lead to unhappy employee/followers.
• Unhappy followers can be negative or
unmotivated, they may resign or adopt a “work to
rule” attitude. Work to rule.
 Referent Power
• Refers to the ability of a leader to influence
a follower because of the follower's loyalty,
respect, friendship, admiration, affection, or
a desire to gain approval.
• When the followers believe that the leader
possess qualities that they admire and
would like to possess.
• Followers identify with their leader and
attempt to copy their leader.
 Referent Power
• Power of an individual over the Team or
Followers, based on a high level of
identification with, admiration of, or respect
for the power holder/ leader.
• Nationalism, patriotism, celebrities, mass
leaders and widely-respected people.
• Some leaders will have referent power over
just a few, whilst others such as Ghandi have
lead millions through their personality and
charisma.
 Expert Power
• A leader has expert power when the followers
believe that the leader has “expert” knowledge
or skills that are relevant to the job or tasks they
have to complete.
• An experienced member of the team or staff in
an organization, can have expert power even
though they are not a supervisor or manager.
• This type of power is usually highly specific and
limited to the particular area in which the expert
is trained and qualified.
 Leadership Theories

• Personality Trait Theories

• Behaviour theories

• Contingency Theories
Motivation
 Defining motivation

• Motivation is widely studied as a psychological

concept. The ancient Greek who believed that
human being always sought comfort and pleasure
and avoided discomfort and pain. Later
Psychological approaches perceived motivation as
an instinct and studied as a basic psychological
concept.
 Motivation process
Scholars view motivation process in a
cyclical pattern that consisted of three
interacting and interdependent element:
1. Need
2. Deficiency
3. Action
 Needs
NEEDS

Satisfaction Deficiency
D
GOAL
DRIVE

Action
• The motivation cycle (process)
 Motivation
 Major motivation theories
1. Hierarchy of needs theory
2. Two factor theory
3. Expectancy theory
4. Theory ‘x’ and theory ‘y’
5. Motivation in Islam
 Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)

A Management professor at
the MIT Sloan School of
Management.
Douglas McGregor presented a
theory called Theory X and
Theory Y.
His Theory X and Y are the
negative and positive
assumption about human
behaviour.
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 Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
Theory X
Theory X has negative assumptions, which are as follows:-

 Dislike work:
It is assumed that human beings are lazy and docile, therefore,
they avoid work.
 Avoid responsibility:
Because human beings are lazy, they do not want to take any
responsibility.
 They need to be supervised:
From the above two assumption it follow that they need to be
supervised. As human beings are lazy, therefore, in order to get
work out of them they need to be closely supervised.
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 Douglas McGregor (1906-1964)
Theory Y
Theory Y is a positive assumption about human behaviour.
 People accept responsibility:
Because they are willing to work and agile and active. They want to achieve
goals for the organization and accept responsibility.
 Can exercise control:
Because they are responsible, therefore, they want to have control over things
 Have capacity to be creative:
People want to be creative and look for challenge.
 Can work as natural as rest or play:
For people work and rest are equal, i.e. people want to work and rest which is
natural they cannot rest all the time because it becomes boring and they
cannot work all the time because it becomes dull as well.
 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

● An American professor
of psychology at Brandeis
University, Brooklyn College, New
School and Columbia University who
created Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
● Theory has received more attention
from managers.
● Maslow viewed human motivation as a
hierarchy of five needs ranging from
the most basic physiological or basic
needs to the highest level of need for
“self actualization”.

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 Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
● Individuals will be motivated to fulfill the most
pressing need at a time.
● The importance of need depends on the deprivation
of the need and current situation.
● If the individual is deprived of basic need he will be
at that level of need e.g. the basic needs are food,
clothing and shelter.
● If one is hungry and is starving one will not be able
to think of higher level of need i.e. safety.

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Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

Friendship and family

Breathing, food, water, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

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Network Governance
 Network Governance;
• Network administration is aimed at, “coordinating
strategies of actors with different goals and
preferences with regard to a certain problem or policy
measure within an existing network of inter-
organizational relations”

• Promoting the mutual adjustment of the behaviour of

actors with diverse objectives and ambitions with
regard to tackling problems within a given framework
of interorganizational relationships.

(Kickert and Koopenjan, 1997, p.10, 44).

 Network Governance;
• “The act or manner of governing; the office or
function of governing”.
• To govern is ‘to rule or control with authority’.
• Governance refers to self-organize, inter-
organizational networks characterized by
interdependence, resource-exchange, rules of the
game, and significant autonomy from the state.

(Rhodes, 1997a:15)
 Network Governance;
• New use of Governance include:
- State actors and institution
- Role of networks in pursuit of common
goals
- Networks could be inter-governmental or
inter- organizational
• Governance is the capacity of government to
make and implement policy, to steer society.
Strategic Management;
 Definition
 Strategic management can be
defined as the art and science of
formulating, implementing and
evaluating cross-functional
decisions that enable an
organization to achieve its
objectives.
 Strategic Management
 An integrative management field that
combines
 Analysis
 Formulation
Implementation
Competitive advantage.
 Strategic Management
Strategic management includes :
Understanding the strategic position of an
organization
 Making strategic choices for the future
 Managing strategy in action.
 Strategic Plan
 Plan must be:
Simple
 written
Clear
Based on the real current situation
It should not be rushed
STEPS IN A STRATEGIC PLANNING PROCESS
Step 1 Vision And Mission
Step 2. Environmental Scan
Step 3. Gap Analysis
Step 4. Benchmarking
Step 5. Strategic Issues
Step 6. Strategic Programming
Step 7. Emergent Strategies
Step 8. Evaluation Of Strategy
Step 9. Review Of The Strategic Plan
Step 10. Strategic Thinking
 Stages of Strategic Management

Strategy Strategy Strategy

formulation implementation evaluation
The Strategic-Management Model

Where are we now?

Where do we want to go?

How are we going to get there?

PUBLIC CHOICE

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 PUBLIC CHOICE
• Public choice theory is the use of modern economic tools to
study problems.

• It is the subset of positive political theory that models voters,

politicians, and bureaucrats as mainly self-interested.

• It studies such agents and their interactions in the social

system either as such or under alternative constitutional rules.

• These can be represented in a number of ways, including

standard constrained utility maximization, game theory, or
decision theory. 45
 PUBLIC CHOICE
• Public choice analysis has roots in positive analysis
("what is") but is often used for normative purposes
("what ought to be"), to identify a problem or suggest
how a system could be improved by changes in
constitutional rules, the subject of constitutional
economics.

• Public choice theory is intimately related to social

choice theory, which uses mathematical tools to study
voting and voters.
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Administrative
Culture;
 Administrative Culture;
Two main perspectives may assist us in understanding
the administrative culture of a nation.
• 1st Government administration in all nations happens
to be larger and complex than any single organization,
being composed of many departments, agencies,
corporations etc.
• 2nd policies and administrative decisions get
implemented through the state apparatus, state
financial and other resources are distributed, and the
entire society is affected in many ways by the
attending administrative culture.
FEDERAL, PROVINCIAL &
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
 Federal Government

Branches of
Federal
Government

Executive Legislative Judiciary

 1. Legislative Branch
President
(Head of State)
• Elected
representatives
Parliament
(Majlis-e-shora)

National
Senate
Assembly
(Upper House)
(Lower House)
• Senate • National Assembly
– 104 Members
– 342 Members
– 23 from each province
– 272 General seats
– 8 from FATA
– 60 for women
– 4 from Federal Capital
– 10 for non-muslims
– Elected for 6 years
– General seats are filled by
– 17 seats reserved for direct and free vote
women
– 17 seats reserved for
Technocrats/ulma
– 4 seats reserved for
minorities
– Elected indirectly
through the system of
proportional
representation
National Assembly
 2. Judicial Branch
• Legal arm of the government
• Constitution provides for the “separation of
judiciary from the executive” and the
“independence of judiciary”
• Entrusts the superior courts with an obligation
to “preserve, protect and defend” the
Constitution
• Consists of
– Supreme Court
– High Courts
– Federal Shariat Court
– Subordinate Judiciary
 3. Executive Branch
President • Administrative arm
(Head of State) of government

Prime Minister
(Chief Executive/Head of
Government)

Federal Cabinet

Cabinet Establishment
PM Secretariat
Division Division
 Federal Cabinet

Ministries/Divisions

Attached Autonomous Semi-Autonomous

Departments Bodies Bodies
Hierarchy In Federal Ministry

Federal
Minister

Federal Secretary

Additional Secretary

Joint Secretary

Deputy Secretary

Section Officer
Hierarchy In Provincial Ministry

Provincial
Minister

Provincial Secretary

Additional Secretary

Deputy Secretary

Section Officer
Organization of Federal Government in
Pakistan
• “Rules of Business-1973” define the function of ministries,
ministers

• Central Secretariat: For the proper functioning of the Federal

Government there are ministries, divisions, attached
departments, autonomous and semi-autonomous bodies.

• Ministry: A ministry is a division or group of divisions constituted

into a ministry or it may comprise one or more divisions for the
conduct of business of Federal Government in a specified
sphere. Each ministry is headed by a Cabinet Minister and a
Secretary is the administrative incharge of the ministry.

• Division: It also performs functions like Ministry to formulate

policies and to ensure their implementation. It is headed by a
Minister for State and administrative in charge is Secretary or
Additional Secretary.
• Attached Department: It has a direct relation with Ministry or
Division And provide assistance to the Ministry in the formulation
and execution of the policies and they are under the control of
Ministry or Division.

• Subordinate Offices: Each attached department has many

subordinate offices, which are known as “field offices”. They are
under the attached department and perform specific duties. They
are responsible for the execution of all the filed activities of
attached departments. They are headed by an administrator or
Director.

• Autonomous/Semi Autonomous Bodies: Certain Ministries or

Divisions have a number of autonomous, semi-autonomous
bodies representing the trend of decentralization for arriving at
speedy decisions. The main sectors, under which these bodies
are working are Finance, Education and Banking.
THANK YOU
Three Tiered Local Government System

Caters to Development
District Administration
Needs Like Health

Caters To Municipal
Tehsil Administration
Needs and Services

Union Administration Elects Members of the

Higher Tiers

Advisory Role in Service

CCB’s and VNC’s
Provision
 Rules of Business 1973
• In exercise of the powers conferred by Articles
90 and 99 of the Constitution of the Islamic
Republic of Pakistan, the Federal Government
is pleased to make the rules. (Inter
governmental relations)