Temperature

Regulation
Human are usually in environments cooler than their bodies,
but they constantly generate heat internally which helps
maintain body temperature.

Thermal regulation essential – thermal energy influences

chemical interactions in ways that affect macro-molecular
structure and biochemical reactions.

37.8 0C

An increase in temperature speeds up cellular chemical

reactions, whereas a fall in temperature slows down these
reaction.
 Temperature
Regulation
Humans homeostatically maintain body temperature.

37.8 0C

ENDOTHERMY: The ability to generate and maintain

elevated body temperatures.

Overheating is more Protein Nerve

serious than cooling denaturation malfunction
 Stable Core
Temperature
Heat input
Heat gain from external
environment and internal
heat production.

versus
Heat output
Heat loss from exposed
body surfaces to the
external environment.

Heat input must balance heat

output to maintain a stable core
body temperature!!!
 Heat
Exchange
 Heat
Exchange
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between
objects of differing temperatures that are in direct contact
with each other.

Thermal energy moving down its thermal gradient from the

warmer to the cooler object.

Example; Heat conduction to the layer of air in direct

contact with human body.

Only a small percentage of total heat exchange between

the skin and the environment takes place by conduction →
air is not a good conductor for thermal energy.
 Heat
Exchange
Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by air or
water current.

Convection current – as the body loses heat by conduction,

to the surrounding cooler air, the air in immediate contact
with the skin is warmed – warm air is lighter/less dense
than cool air, the warmed air rises while cooler air moves in
next to the skin to replace the vacating warm air.

Warm Air Cool Air

Rises Sinks
 Heat
Exchange
Evaporation
Evaporation is conversion of a liquid such as sweat
into a gaseous vapor, a process that requires heat (the
heat of vaporization).

The heat is absorbed from the skin, thereby cooling the

body.

The on-going evaporation from the skin is unrelated to the

sweat glands – these passive evaporative heat loss
processes are not subject to physiological control and go
on even in very cold weather, when the problem is one of
conserving body heat.
 Heat
Exchange

Radiation
Radiation is the emission of heat energy from the
surface of a warm body in the form of electromagnetic
waves or heat waves which travel through space.

On average, human lose close to half of their heat energy

through radiation.

The human body both emits (source of heat loss) and

absorbs (source of heat gain) radiant energy.
 Thermal
Strategies

Behavioral Biochemically Physiologically

Physical Metabolic Blood Flow

Activity Reaction
Sweating

Body Core Temperature within an acceptable limit

 An animal with a relatively
An animal with a variable
constant body T, using
body T, varies in response to
physiological processes to
environmental T.
regulate heat production and
loss.
Poikilotherm
Homeotherm

Thermal
Strategies

Ectotherms Endotherms
An animal that generate
An animal’s body T determine
internal heat to maintain body
by environment T.
T.
 Thermal
Zone

Upper Critical Lower Critical

Thermoneutral
Temperature Temperature

Metabolic rate minimal Metabolic rate Metabolic rate

(Basal Metabolic Rate) decreases increases

Optimum temperature Physiological Physiological

for physiological responses to prevent responses to increase
processes overheating heat production
 Thermoregulation

Thermoreceptors – temperature sensitive receptors (core

and skin temperature).

The body core temperature is monitored by central

thermoreceptors located in hypothalamus and abdominal
organs.

Peripheral thermoreceptors monitor skin temperature

throughout the body.
 Thermoregulation

Hypothalamus temperature regulating centre;

a) posterior region – activated by cold, triggers reflexes

that mediate heat production and heat conservation.

b) anterior region – activated by warmth/hot, initiates

reflexes that mediate heat loss.
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation
 Thermoregulation
Negative Feedback Mechanism
 Thermoregulation
Negative Feedback Mechanism
 Fluid Balance
(Salt and Water)
&
Acid Base Balance

Prepared by
Nurdiana binti Samsulrizal
Dzulsuhaimi Daud
 Fluid Balance
Concept

Homeostasis depends on maintaining a balance between

the input and the output of all constituents in the internal
fluid environment.

Regulation of fluid balance involves two separate

components; control of extracellular fluid volume and
control of ECF osmolarity.

KIDNEYS
 Fluid Balance
Concept

Osmotic Regulation

Body Fluid
Balance

Ionic Regulation Nitrogen Excretion

Body Fluids
Introduction

Water is the most abundant

component of the human
body, constituting 60% of
body weight on average.

Body fluids/water is
distributed between two
major fluid compartments;

a) ICF – fluid within the cell

b) ECF – fluid surrounding the
cell
 Body Fluids
Classification of Body Fluids

Compartments Volume of fluid (L) Percentage of body Percentage of BWT

fluid
Total Body Fluid 42 100 60
ICF 28 67 40
ECF 14 33 20

Plasma 2.8 6.6 4

(20% of ECF)

Interstitial Fluid 11.2 26.4

(80% of ECF) 16

Reference;
Sherwood, L (2012) Essentials of Physiology.
Body Fluids
Daily Water Balance
 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Ionic composition are similar in the plasma and

interstitial fluid but differ markedly in the ECF and ICF.
 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Several barriers separate the body-fluid

compartments, limiting the movement of H2O and
solutes (electrolytes) among the various
compartment;

a) Blood vessel walls; The barrier between plasma (fluid

portion of blood) and interstitial fluid (fluid in the spaces
between cells)

b) Cellular plasma membrane; The barrier between the ICF

and ECF

Blood vessel walls

Cellular plasma membrane

 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Blood vessels walls; The barrier between plasma

and interstitial fluid.

The two components of the ECF, plasma & interstitial

fluid are separated by the blood vessels walls.

H2O and all plasma constituents except for plasma

proteins are continuously and freely exchanged
between plasma and interstitial fluid by passive mean
across the pore-lined capillary walls.
 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Cellular plasma membranes; The barrier between the

ECF and the ICF

The composition of ECF differs from that ICF → each cell

surrounded by a highly selective plasma membrane →
permits passage of certain materials while excluding
others.

Cellular plasma membrane

 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Cellular plasma membranes; The barrier between the

ECF and the ICF

Movements through the membrane barrier occurs by both

passive and active transport;

a) simple diffusion and osmosis

b) carrier-mediated transport
c) vesicular transport

Cellular plasma membrane

 Body Fluids
Ionic/Electrolytes Composition

Cellular plasma membranes; The barrier between the

ECF and the ICF

The major differences between the ECF and the ICF;

a) The presence of cell proteins in the ICF that cannot

permeate the enveloping membranes to leave the cells

b) The unequal distribution of Na+ and K+

Electrically unbalanced portion of ECF and ICF →

membrane potential.
 Body Fluids
Fluid/Electrolytes Regulation
 Body Fluids
Fluid/Electrolytes Regulation

Fluid/water/electrolytes balance is maintained by regulating

ECF volume and ECF osmolarity.

All exchanges of H2O and other constituents between the

ICF and the external world must occur through the ECF.

ECF volume → regulated to help maintain blood pressure

by maintaining the salt/electrolyte balance.

ECF osmolarity → regulated to prevent swelling or

shrinking of cells by maintaining water balance.
 Body Fluids
Extracellular Fluid Volume

A reduction in ECF volume causes a fall in arterial blood

pressure meanwhile expanding ECF volume raises arterial
blood pressure → BP.

Control of salt balance is primarily important in regulating ECF

volume.

As the kidneys conserve salts, they automatically conserve

H2O because H2O follows Na+ osmotically.
 Body Fluids
Extracellular Fluid Volume

The kidneys accordingly adjust the amount of salt excreted

by controlling two processes;

a) The glomerular filtration

b) The tubular reabsorption of Na+

 Body Fluids
Extracellular Fluid Volume
 Body Fluids
Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity

Regulating ECF osmolarity is important in preventing

changes in cell volume.

The osmolarity of a fluid is a measure of the concentration

of the individual solute particles dissolved in it.
 Body Fluids
Extracellular Fluid Osmolarity

Hypertonicity – the excessive concentration of ECF

solutes and usually associated with dehydration.
a) Insufficient H2O intake
b) Excessive H2O loss
c) Diabetes insipidus – deficiency of vasopressin

Hypotonicity – usually associated with overhydration.

a) Renal failure
b) H2O is rapidly ingested to that kidneys cannot respond
quickly
c) Excess H2O without solutes is retained in the body
Electrolyte/Fluid
Balance
Negative Feedback Mechanism
Electrolyte/Fluid
Balance
 Acid-Base Balance
Introduction

Acid-base balance refers to the precise regulation of free (unbound)

hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the body fluids.

To indicate the concentration of H+, its symbol is enclosed in square

brackets → [H+] = H+ concentration.

Acid liberate free hydrogen ion Bases accept free hydrogen ion

Acids are a special group of Base is a substance that can

hydrogen-containing substances combine with a free H+ and thus
that dissociate or separate, remove it from solution.
when in solution to liberate free
H+ and anions.
 Acid-Base Balance
Chemistry’s Acid-Base

The concept of pH was developed to express the low value of [H+].

pH = log (1 / [H+])

A high [H+] corresponds to a low pH A low [H+] corresponds to a high pH

Acid Base

Solutions having a pH less than 7.0 contain a higher [H+] → ACIDIC

Solutions having a pH greater than 7.0 contain a lower [H+] → BASIC

 Acid-Base Balance
Acidosis & Alkalosis

The pH of arterial blood is normally 7.45 and the pH of venous blood is

7.35 for an average blood pH of 7.4

The pH of venous blood is slightly lower (more acidic) than that of arterial
blood because H+ is generated by the formation of H2CO3 from CO2 picked
up at the tissue capillaries.

Acidosis exists whenever blood pH Alkalosis exists whenever blood

falls below 7.35 pH increase above 7.45

The body’s acid-base status is not the chemically neutral pH of 7.0 but the
normal blood pH of 7.4, thus a blood pH of 7.2 is considered acidotic.
 Acid-Base Balance
pH Imbalances

Only the narrow pH range is compatible with life → an arterial pH less than
6.8 or greater than 8.0 is not compatible with life.

Changes in excitability of nerve and

muscle cells.

[H+] exerts the marked influence on

Consequences enzyme activity.

Changes in [H+] influence K+ levels in the

body.
 Acid-Base Balance
pH Imbalances

Changes in excitability of nerve and muscle cells are among the

major clinical manifestation of pH abnormalities.

Alkalosis
Leading to over-excitability of the nervous system, first
peripheral nervous system later CNS → Example; over
sensation, muscle spasms, convulsions and extreme
nervousness.

Acidosis
Leading to depression of CNS → acidotic patient become
disoriented and eventually die in a state of coma.
 Acid-Base Balance
pH Imbalances

Hydrogen ion concentrations exerts a marked

influence on enzyme activity.
Alter the shape and activity of
protein molecules.

Changes in [H+] influence K+ levels in the body.

The renal tubular cells secrete either K+ or H+ in exchange to Na+

reabsorption.

Normally the renal secrete more K+ than H+ but during acidosis,

H+ secretion increases and less K+ than usual. Meanwhile during
alkalosis H+ secretion is reduced and more K+ secretion than
usual → cardiac abnormalities.
 Acid-Base Balance
pH Imbalances

Cellular oxidation – CO2 and H2O as end

Carbonic acid formation
products. Later, CO2 + H2O H2CO3

H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-
Sources of H+ in the body Carbonic
anhydrase?

Inorganic acids produced during Organic acids resulting from

breakdown of nutrients. intermediary metabolism.

Dietary protein contain sulfur and Fatty acids during fat metabolism.
phosphorus → sulfuric acid and
phosphoric acid → liberating H+ in Lactic acid by muscle during
the body fluids. exercise.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The H2CO3:HCO3- The Hemoglobin

Buffer System The chemical buffer Buffer System
system

The Protein Buffer The Phosphate Buffer

System System

Defence against changes

in [H+]

The respiratory mechanism of The renal mechanism of pH

pH control. control.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The H2CO3:HCO3- Buffer System

The primary ECF buffer for non-carbonic acids.

Important buffer system in the ECF for buffering pH

changes brought about by causes other than
fluctuations in CO2 generated H2CO3.

Effective for 2 reasons;

1. H2CO3 and HCO3- are abundant in the ECF
2. Each component of this buffer pair is closely
regulated. HCO3- by kidneys and respiratory
system regulates CO2 which generates H2CO3.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Protein Buffer System

The most plentiful buffers of the body fluids are the protein,
including the intracellular and plasma proteins.

Proteins are excellent buffers because they contain both

acidic and basic groups that can give up or take H+.

Intracellular protein buffering changes in [H+] in the ICF.

Limited number of plasma protein reinforces the H2CO3 :

HCO3- system in extracellular buffering.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Hemoglobin Buffer System

Hemoglobin buffers the H+ generated from metabolically

produced CO2 in transit between the tissues and the lungs.

The greatest percentage of this CO2 along with H2O forms H+

and HCO3- under the influence of carbonic anhydrase within
the red blood cells.

Most H+ generated from CO2 at the tissue level becomes

bound to reduced hemoglobin and no longer contributed to
acidity of body fluids.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Phosphate Buffer System

An important urinary buffer.

It consists of an acid phosphate salt that can donate H+

when the [H+] falls and a basic phosphate salt that can
accept H+ when the [H+] rises.

Its concentration in the ECF is rather low, so it is not very

important as ECF buffer but serves as an excellent urinary
buffer → the only buffer system exist during urine formation.

Humans normally consume more phosphate than needed →

the excess phosphate filtered through kidneys is not
reabsorbed but be excreted.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Respiratory Mechanism of pH Control

Respiratory system - ability to alter pulmonary

ventilation and consequently to alter excretion of H+
generating CO2.

When arterial [H+] increases as a result of a non-

respiratory (metabolic) cause, the respiratory centre in
the brain stem is reflexly stimulated to increase
pulmonary ventilation.

When arterial [H+] falls, pulmonary ventilation is

reduced.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Respiratory Mechanism of pH Control

Parameters Normal pH Acidosis Alkalosis

Ventilation Normal Increase Decrease

CO2 removal Normal Increase Decrease

H+ generation Normal Decrease Increase

from CO2
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Renal Mechanism of pH Control: Renal H+ excretion

Kidneys eliminated H+ derived from sulfuric,

phosphoric, lactic and other acids plus extra H+
derived from CO2.

Energy dependent carriers in the membrane of the

tubular cells secrete the extra H+ from the peritubular
capillary plasma into the tubular fluid.

Urine is acidic (average pH of 6) because the kidney

excrete H+.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Renal Mechanism of pH Control: Renal H+ excretion

 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Renal Mechanism of pH Control : Renal HCO3- excretion

Kidneys adjustment of HCO3- excretion is depending

on the H+ load in the plasma.

When plasma [H+] is higher than normal, the kidneys

reabsorb more HCO3-.

When plasma [H+] is below normal, the kidneys

excreting more HCO3- in the urine.
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Renal Mechanism of pH Control : Renal HCO3- excretion

To compensate for acidosis, the kidneys acidify urine

and alkalinize plasma.

To compensate for alkalosis, the kidneys make urine

alkaline and acidify plasma
 Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH

The Renal Mechanism of pH Control: Renal NH3 secretion

The tubular cells secrete ammonia (NH3) into the

tubular fluid once the normal urinary phosphate
buffers are saturated.

NH3 combines with free H+ in the tubular fluid to form

ammonium ion (NH4+).

The ammonium ion remain in the tubular fluid and are

lost in the urine.
Acid-Base Balance
Regulation of pH
Osmoregulation
 Osmoregulation
Introduction

Osmoregulation

Osmoregulation is the maintenance of constant osmotic

pressure in the fluids of an organism by the control of water and
salts concentration.

Osmotic regulation – the control of tissue osmotic pressure.

Ionic regulation – the control of the ionic composition.

Nitrogen excretion – the pathway by which animals excrete N.

 Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion

The ammonia produced

during amino acid breakdown
is a toxic solute that must be
excreted either as ammonia,
urea or uric acid.

Animals use a variety of

strategies to excrete this
nitrogenous waste and these
strategies have important
implications for ion and water
balance (water conservation). Ammoniotele Ureotele Uricotele
 Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion

An animals that excretes nitrogen in the form of ammonia

is called an ammoniotele – ammonia is very toxic and must
be excreted as dilute solution → resulting in water loss.

Alternative strategies involve energy-dependent production

of nitrogenous wastes that can be stored at higher levels
and excreted with less water loss → ureotele (excretes
urea) and uricotele (excretes uric acid).
Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion
 Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion - Ammoniotele
 Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion - Ureotele
 Osmoregulation
Nitrogenous Excretion - Uricotele
The Kidneys
The Kidneys
Introduction

Figure: The kidney is composed of

two layers, the cortex and medulla. As
urine is produced, it is collected by the
minor calyces, which join together to
form the major calyx. The urine
passes through the ureter into the
urinary bladder for storage before
leaving the animal through the urethra
(Moyes & Schulte, 2008)

The human kidney may

process 4 liters of blood
per kg each minute
compared to muscle 0.5
liters per kg per min.
 The Kidneys
Introduction
Kidney has six roles
in homeostasis.

Ion balance – Regulate sodium (ECF Osmotic balance – The kidneys

osmolarity) and potassium level determine the volume of urine
(resting membrane potential) thereby control water balance.

pH balance – The kidneys regulates Blood pressure – Controlling blood

the pH by retaining or excreting H+ or volume (ECF) to regulate blood
HCO3- pressure.

Hormone production – Synthesis Excretion – Excretion of nitrogenous

and release of hormones renin (blood wastes, water soluble toxins and
pressure) and erythropoietin (RBC vitamins.
synthesis)
 The Kidneys
The Nephron

The nephron is the functional CORTEX

unit of the kidney.

Figure: Nephron structure –

two types of nephrons are
distinguished by their
location within the kidney.
Through the glomerulus is in
the cortex, tubules can
penetrate the medulla to
different degrees (a) cortical
nephrons (b) juxtamedullary MEDULLA
nephrons (Moyes & Schulte,
2008).
 The Kidneys
The Nephron

Each nephron composed of two elements; the

renal tubules and the associated vasculature
(mainly glomerulus).

The tubule is composed of epithelial cells with

characteristic transport properties that allow
them to reclaim specific solutes and expel
others.

Bowman’s capsule is the mouth of the tubule,

a cuplike expansion that surrounds the
glomerulus.
The Kidneys
The Nephron
 The Kidneys
The Nephron

Vascular Components

Afferent arteriole – carries blood to the glomerulus.

Glomerulus – a tuft of capillaries that filters a protein-free

plasma into the tubular component.

Efferent arteriole – carries blood from the glomerulus.

Peritubular capillaries – supply the renal tissue; involved

in exchanges with the fluid in the tubular lumen.
 The Kidneys
The Nephron

Tubular Components

Bowman’s capsule – collects the glomerular filtrate.

Proximal tubule – uncontrolled reabsorption and secretion of

selected substances.

Loop of Henle – establishes an osmotic gradient in the renal

medulla that is important in the kidney’s ability to produce urine of
varying concentration.

Distal tubule and collecting duct – controlled reabsorption and

of Na+ and H2O and secretion of K+ and H+ (fluid leaving the
collecting duct is urine).
 The Kidneys
The Nephron

Combined vascular and tubular components

Juxtaglomerular apparatus – produces substances involved in the

control of kidney function.

Juxtaglomerular
apparatus
The Kidneys
Urine Production

Glomerular Filtration

Tubular Reabsorption

Tubular Secretion

Urine Excretion
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Glomerular Filtration

Glomerular filtration is the first step in urine formation.

As blood flows through the glomerulus, protein free

plasma filters through the glomerular capillaries into
Bowman’s capsule.

Only 20% of the plasma that enters the glomerulus is

filtered.

On average, 125 ml of glomerular filtrate (filtered fluid)

are formed collectively through all the glomeruli each
minute (180 liters each day).
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Glomerular Filtration

drugs

drugs)
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Tubular Reabsorption

Tubular reabsorption is the selective movement of substances

from inside the tubule (the tubular lumen) into the blood.

As the filtrate flows through the tubules, substances of value to

the body are returned to the peritubular capillary plasma.

Reabsorbed substances are not lost from the body in the urine
but instead are carried by the peritubular capillaries to the
venous system and then to the heart to be recirculated.

Average, 178.5 liters are reabsorbed from 180 liters of plasma

filtered per day.
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Tubular Reabsorption
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Tubular Secretion

Tubular secretion is the selective transfer of substances from

the peritubular capillary blood into the tubular lumen.

Tubular secretion provides a second route for substances to

enter the renal tubules from the blood (the first being by
glomerular filtration).

Tubular secretion provides a mechanism for more rapidly

eliminating selected substances from the plasma by extracting
an additional quantity of a particular substance from the 80% of
unfiltered plasma in the peritubular capillaries.
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Tubular Secretion
 The Kidneys
Urine Production

Urine Excretion

Urine excretion is the

elimination of substances from
the body in the urine.

All plasma constituents filtered

or secreted but not reabsorbed
remain in the tubules and pass
into the renal pelvis to be
excreted as urine and
eliminated from the body.
The Kidneys
Urine Production
 The Kidneys
Glomerular Filtration Rate
Force Effect Magnitude
(mm Hg)
Glomerular Capillary Blood Pressure Favors Filtration 55
(The fluid pressure exerted by the blood within the
glomerular capillaries)
Plasma-Colloid Osmotic Pressure Opposes Filtration 30
(Unequal distribution of plasma protein across the
glomerular membrane)
Bowman’s Capsule Hydrostatic Pressure Opposes Filtration 15
(The pressure exerted by the fluid in the initial part
of the tubule)
Net Filtration Pressure Favors Filtration 10
50-(30+15) = 10

About 20% of the plasma that enters the glomerulus is filtered at the net
filtration pressure of 10 mm Hg, producing collectively 180 liters of
glomerular filtrate each day for an average glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of
125 ml/min in males and 160 liters of filtrate per day for an average GFR of
115 ml/min in females.
 The Kidneys
Regulation of Urinary/Renal Function

1. Glomerular filtration pressures.

2. Intrinsic regulators; myogenic regulation, tubuloglomerular

feedback, mesangial control and pressure natriuresis.

3. Vasopressin; alters the permeability of the collecting duct.

4. Aldosterone; regulates sodium and potassium balance.

5. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.

6. Hypothalamic factors regulate thirst.

 The Kidneys
Vasopressin

Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is the main hormone

responsible for recovery of water from the tubule.

(anti means “against”, diuretic means “increased urine output”)

This peptide hormone is produced in the cell bodies of hypothalamic

neurons, travels down the neurons to the pituitary gland where it is
released into the circulation → at the target tissue, the effects of
vasopressin occur within a few minutes.

Vasopressin secretion is stimulated by a H2O deficit when the ECF is

too concentrated (hypertonic) → H2O must be conserved.

Vasopressin secretion is inhibited by a H2O excess when the ECF is

too dilute (hypotonic) → H2O must be eliminated in urine.
 The Kidneys
Vasopressin

Vasopressin increase the reabsorption of H2O by the collecting duct

→ H2O also reabsorbed in the loop of Henle but collecting duct is the
main site of hormonal regulation of water uptake.

Vasopressin alters water uptake by affecting the number of

aquaporins in the apical membrane of the principal cells of the
collecting duct.

Vasopressin binds to G-protein linked receptor in the plasma

membrane, triggers a signaling pathways that acts via cAMP and
protein kinase A to translocate vesicle containing preformed
aquaporins to the apical membrane.

Once vasopressin levels fall, the pathway reverses and aquaporins

are removed from the membrane by endocytosis.
The Kidneys
Vasopressin
 The Kidneys
Aldosterone

Aldosterone (steroids/mineralocorticoids hormone) stimulate Na+

reabsorption (and secondarily H2O recovery from the urine) and
enhance K+ excretion.

Aldosterone are produced by adrenal cortex and targets the principal

cells of the distal tubule and collecting ducts → binding to a
cytoplasmic hormone receptor and entering the nucleus to stimulate
transcription of genes involved in ion transport.

The effects of aldosterone manifest over several hours because the

process involves gene transcription, translation at the ER,
processing in the Golgi complex, packaging into vesicles and fusion
with plasma membrane.
 The Kidneys
Aldosterone

Na+/K+ ATPase is produced in the principal cells and sent to the basolateral
membrane.+

K+ and Na+ channels are produced and targeted to the apical membrane.
 The Kidneys
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Pathway

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is hormonal system

involved in regulating Na+.

This system is initiated by the juxtaglomerular apparatus by secreting

enzymatic hormone “renin” into the blood in response to fall in NaCl,
ECF volume and arterial blood pressure.

These interrelated signals for increased renin secretion all indicate the
need to expand the plasma volume to increase the arterial pressure to
normal.

Renin secretion brings about increased Na+ reabsorption by the distal

and collecting tubules (with Cl- passively following Na+ active
movement) → osmotically induced H2O retention, which help restore
the plasma volume.
 The Kidneys
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Pathway

Renin acts as an enzyme to activate angiotensinogen into

angiotensin I.

Angiotensinogen is a plasma protein synthesized by the liver and

always present in the plasma in high concentration.

Angiotension I is converted into angiotensin II by an angiotensin-

converting enzyme (ACE) which is abundant in the pulmonary
capillaries.

Angiotensin II is the main stimulus for secretion of the aldosterone

from the adrenal cortex → aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption by
the distal and collecting tubules → promoting the insertion of additional
Na+ leak channels into the luminal membrane and Na+-K+ pump into
the basolateral membranes of the distal and collecting tubular cells,
 The Kidneys
The Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone
Pathway