Different Theories of The Formition or Origin of The Solar System

Lecture 5-6 - Solar system formation theories
o Topics to be covered:
o Laplace nebula theory

QuickTime™ and a
Video decompressor
o Jeans’ tidal theory

are needed to see this picture.
o Solar nebula theory
PY4A01 Solar System Science

Planet formation models
o Three basic models have been proposed:
o Tidal theory: Planets formed from condensed gasses ‘ripped’ from an all ready
formed Sun.
o Capture theory: During a close stellar encounter, Sun captures material out of
which planets form.
o Nebula theory: Planets formed at the same time as the Sun in the same gas
cloud.

Laplace nebula theory
o Proposed by Pierre Laplace in Exposition du

Système du Monde (1796). 1. 2.
o Consists of 5 stages:
1. Slowly rotating, collapsing gas and dust
sphere.
2. An oblate spheroid, flattened along the
5. 4. 3.
spin axis.
3. The critical lenticular form - material in
equatorial region is in free orbit.
4. Rings left behind in equatorial plane due
to further collapse. “Spasmodic” process
leads to annular rings.
5. One planet condenses in each ring with
Sun at centre.

Laplace nebula theory: Difficulties
1. Strongest criticism related to the distribution of AM.

o There is no mechanism for the partitioning of mass and AM.
o Mass and AM concentrated on the central star.
2. While still a student at Cambridge, Maxwell suggested that differential rotation

between inner and outer parts of rings would prevent material from condensing.
o Gravitational attraction between objects in the rings would not be sufficient to

overcome inertial forces.
o Rings would require much more mass than the planets they formed to
overcome this effect.

Jeans’ tidal theory
o Laplace theory was a monistic theory - same body of

material in a single process gave rise to both the Sun 1.
and the planets.
o James Jeans (1917) proposed a dualistic theory that

separated formation of Sun from formation of 2.
planets.
o Jeans’ Theory involved interaction between Sun and

a very massive star in three stages:
1. Massive star passes within Roche Limit of Sun,
3.
pulling out material in the form of a filament.
2. Filament is gravitationally unstable, and breaks
into series of blobs of masses greater than the
Jeans’ critical mass, and so collapse to form
proto-planets.
3. Planets were left in orbit about the Sun.

Roche Limit
o Roche limit is distance at which a satellite begins to be tidally
torn apart. R
2r
o Consider M with 2 satellites of mass m and radius r orbiting at
M m m
distance R. Roche limit is reached when m is more attracted to
M then to m. Occurs when Ftidal ≥ Fbinding
R-r R+r
Gm 2
o The binding force is: Fbinding  Eqn. 4
(2r) 2
o Force of attraction between mass M and nearer satellite is:

GMm/(R - r)2. Force on more distant satellite is GMm/(R + r)2

 1 1 
o Tidal force experienced is thus, Ftidal  GMm  
(R  r) 2 (R  r) 2 
2 
(1 r /R)2  (1 r /R)2 
GMm

R
GMm 4GMmr
 ((1 2r /R)  (1 2r /R))  Ftidal  Eqn. 5
R2 R3
 PY4A01 Solar System Science

Roche Limit (cont.)
o We can therefore rewrite the inequality Ftidal ≥ Fbinding as: 4GMmr Gm 2


R3 4r 2
16Mr 3 1/ 3
o Rearranging then gives RRoche   
 m 

o As M = 4/3 R3M and m = 4/3 r3m:


M 
1/ 3
RRoche  2.520R  Approximate Roche Limit

m 
o Objects which pass


within this are torn apart.
o The Earth's Roche limit is ~18,470 km.

Jeans’ tidal theory: Proto-planet formation
o Jeans showed that filament would be unstable, A

and break into series of proto-planets.
1. Small density excess at A.
2. Gravitational attraction causes material in B
and B’ to move towards A. B’ A B
3. Material at C and C’ now experience an
outward force and produce high-density
regions at D and D’.
D C’ B’ A B C D
o Jeans treated as a wave-like problem, finding

average distance between proto-planets to be:

l
G 
where  is ratio of the specific heats and l is
effectively the wavelength.

Jeans’ tidal theory: Difficulties
1. Very massive stars are rare and distant.

o Probability of massive star coming close to another star is therefore very low.
o Sun’s nearest companion is Proxima Centauri (d =1.3 pc => Rsun=/d ~2x10-8).
2. Rotational period of Sun and Jupiter should be similar if Jupiter’s material was
from Sun.
o Not the case (Psun ~ 26 days and Pjupiter ~ 10 hours).
3. In 1935, Henry Russell argued that it is not possible for the material from the Sun
to acquire enough AM to explain Mercury, let alone the other planets.
4. Spitzer (1939) noted that material with solar densities and temperatures would
give a minimum mass for collapse of ~100 times that of Jupiter.

Capture theory
o Modified version of Jeans’ theory, proposed Depleted proto-star

in 1964 by M. Woolfson.
o Sun interacts with nearby protostar,

dragging filament from protostar. Material captured
by Sun
Tidally distorted
o Low rotation speed of Sun is explained as proto-star
due to formation before planets.
Sun
o Terrestrial planets due to collisions between

protoplanets close to Sun and giant planets.
Proto-star moves on
o Planetary satellites due to condensation in a hyperbolic orbit
drawn out filaments.

Capture theory: Difficulties
o Space between local stars too large for 9 planets and 60 moons to be caught
by Sun.
o Millions would have to pass, in order for one to be caught.
o Planets would tend to spiral into Sun, not begin encircling it.
o Moons would not begin orbiting around planets; they would crash into Sun
or into planets.
o Cannot explain why Sun and Planets have the same apparent age (4.5
Gyrs).

Solar nebula theory
o Cloud collapses according to the Jeans’ criterion. Collapse may be triggered by

cataclysmic event such as shock wave from a supernova, or a spiral density wave.
o Once started, would continue to collapsing under Newton’s Laws.

o F ~ 1/r^2 => Cloud “shrinks” by factor of 2, force increases by factor of 4.
o As collapse continues, temperature, density and rotation rate increase rapidly.
o Proceeds along five steps:

1. Heating
2. Spinning
3. Flattening
4. Condensation
5. Accretion

1. Heating - Solar Nebula Theory
o As gas cloud collapses, temperatures rise as

potential energy converted to kinetic via:
E = KE + U = const
o From Conservation of Energy, KE increases as

U decreases. QuickTime™ and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
o Temperature therefore rises as 1/2mv2 = 3/2 kT
or T = 1/3k (1/2 m v2).
o Some energy is radiated away thermally. The

solar nebula becomes hottest near its center,
where much of the mass collect to form the
protosun.
o Protosun eventually becomes so hot that nuclear

fusion ignited in its core.

2. Spinning - Solar Nebula Theory
o Solar nebula “spins-up” as it collapses to

conserve AM.
Lf = Lf
m vf rf = m vi ri
m rf2 i = m ri2 f QuickTime™ and a
YUV420 codec decompressor
=> f = i (ri / rf )2 are needed to see this picture.
o Cloud therefore spins up rapidly as it

contract.
o Rotation also ensures not all of material

collapses onto the protosun: the greater the
AM of a rotating cloud, the more spread out
it will be along its equator.

3. Flattening - Solar Nebula
Theory ar
a
g

o g = GM/r2 is directed radially to centre.
g
o a= r2 is perpendicular to rotation axis. a
Radial component is ar = r2 sin.
o Net radial acceleration is

a(r)  g  ar
GM
a(r)   r  2
sin 
r2
o At pole ( = 0) => a(r) = GM/r2
o Atequator ( =90) => a(r) = g - r2
o In disk, there’s a distance where g = r2=>

this is point where contraction stops.

3. Flattening - Solar Nebula Theory
o Collisions further flatten the disk.
o Gas moves in random directions at random

speeds. Different clumps collide and merge,
giving new clumps the average of their
differing velocities.
o Original cloud thus become more orderly as

cloud collapses, changing the cloud's original
lumpy shape into a rotating, flattened disk.
o Similarly, collisions between clumps of

material in highly elliptical orbits reduce their
ellipticities, making their orbits more circular.

Step 4: Condensation
o Formation of planets requires “seeds” -

chunks of matter that gravity can
eventually draw together. Understanding
these seeds and clumping is key to
explaining the differing compositions of QuickTime™ and a
planets. YUV420 codec decompressor
o The process by which seeds were sown

is condensation, when solid or liquid
particles condense out of a gas.
o Condensation is temperature dependent.

When the temperature is low enough
atoms/molecules solidify.

o Approximate equation for the temperature variation in Solar Nebula is

T(R)  631 / R0.77
where R is in AU. “Ice line” where T = 273 K is located at ~3 AU from Sun.
o T < 2,000 K, compounds of silicates (rock) and nickel-iron form.

o T < 270 K, carbon compounds, silicates and
ices form.
o Planetary interiors to Mars

o Nebula temperature > 400 K
o Made of silicates and metals
o Planets beyond Mars

o Nebula temperature < 300 K
o Made of silicates and ices

o Metals include iron, nickel, aluminum. Most metals condense into solid at temperatures of
1000-1600 K. Metals made up <0.2% of the solar nebula's mass.
o Rocks are common on Earth’s surface, primarily silicon-based minerals (silicates). Rocks are
solid at temperatures and pressures on Earth but melt or vaporize at temperatures of 500-1300
K depending on type. Rocky materials made up ~0.4% of the nebula by mass.
o Hydrogen compounds are molecules such as methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and water
(H2O) that solidify into ices below about 150 K. These were significantly more abundant than
rocks and metals, making up ~1.4% of nebula's mass.
o Light gases (H and He) never condense under solar nebula conditions. These gases made up
the remaining 98% of the nebula's mass.
o Note: Order of condensation scales with density.

o Terrestrial planets are made from materials that constituted ~0.6% of the nebula.
o Jovian planets were formed in region where ~2% of material condensed. They also captured gas (98%).

o T~1500-2000K at the present-day orbit of

Mercury
o About Mercury metals can begin to
aggregate together
o Further out, rocky materials condense.
o Most metals/rocks condensing around the

present-day orbit of Mars (T~500K).
o Hence inner planets have high metal/rock

content and few volatile materials.

o Size and composition of planetesimals depends on temperature and distance from Sun.
o Inner solar system

o Within frost line, only rock and metals can
condense.
o Planetesimals therefore made of rock and metals.
o Constitute ~ 0.6% of available material by mass.
o Inner planetismals therefore grew more slowly.
o Inner planets are therefore smaller.
o Outer solar system

o Beyond frost line, rock, metals and ices condensed.
o Planetesmals therefore contain these materials.
o Constitute ~ 2% of available material by mass.
o Outer planetismals therefore grew more quickly.
o Outer planetesmals are therefore larger.
o These process resulted in elementary planetary cores.

o Densities and distances of objects in solar system supports this condensation theory:
o Terrestrial planets: 3-6 g cm-3

=> mainly rocks and metals.
o Jovian planets: 1-2 g cm-3

=> more ice and captured gas.
o Inner Asteroids: contain metalic grains in

rocky materials.
o Outer Asteroids: less metals, and

significantly more ice.

Step 5: Accretion
o After condensation, growth of solid particles occurs due to collisions.
o Accretion is growth of grains through collisions - the real planet building process.
o Larger particles formed from both tiny chondrules about 1 mm in size, and from
porous molecular aggregates held together by Van der Waals forces.
o Accretion proceeds in two ways:
1. Collisions due to the geometric cross section - direct impacts on ‘seed’ grain.
2. Collisions due to gravitational attraction - sweeping-up of material from a

region much larger than grain diameter.

Step 5: Accretion - geometric
o Consider spherical grain of radius r and geometric cross section s =  r2. If number of
grains m-3 is ng, and relative velocity of the grains is vrel then volume (V) swept out in time t
is V = s vrel t, (or V = s vrel for 1 second).
o The number of particles (N) encountered in t is N = V ng

= s vrel t ng =  r2 vrel t ng
o In a given period, seed particle’s mass grows as
Dm/Dt = m0 + N m0 = m0 (1 + r2 vrel ng)
where m0 is the grain mass.
o Mass of the seed particle therefore

increases as r2 for geometrical collisions.
s =  r2
vrelt
Step 5: Geometric and gravitational accretion
o Objects formed by geometric accretion are

called planetesimals: act as seeds for planet
formation. QuickTime™ and a
Cinepak decompressor
o At first, planetesimals were closely packed.
o Then coalesced into larger objects, forming

clumps few km across in few million years.
o Once planetesimals had grown to few km,

collisions became destructive, making further
growth more difficult.
QuickTime™ and a
Cinepak decompressor
o Gravitational accretion then begins to dominate.

This then accretes planetesimals to form
protoplanets.

Step 5: Accretion - gravitational
o When gravity important, grains accrete from larger volume than during geometric
growth phase.
o Consider “test” grain with velocity vi at a vertical distance s from a “seed” grain.
Suppose “test” grain encounters “seed” grain with a final velocity vf.What is value
of s such that the seed grain can capture the “test” grain?
o Using conservation of angular momentum: mvf r = mvi s Eqn. 1

and conservation of energy: GMm
1/2mvi2 1/2mv 2f  Eqn. 2
r
where m is mass of “test” grain and M is mass of “seed” grain.
vi
o 
Eliminating vf from Eqns. 1 and 2 gives: test
grain
2GMr s
s2  r 2  vf
v i2 r s
seed
o As M ~ r3 => s2 ~ r4. grain
 PY4A01 Solar System Science

Step 5: Accretion - gravitational
o The growth rate of the seed particle per unit time is therefore:
Dm / Dt = m0 (1 +  s2 vrel ng)
o As s2 ~ r4 => Dm / Dt ~ r4 =>runaway accretion.
o Once grains are large enough that gravity is important, accretion rate increases dramatically.
o If critical size is achieved, a planetesimal will grow rapidly. Less massive objects grow at a
much smaller rate.
o Model calculation suggest that the first large size objects to form are planetesimals with sizes
~ few tens of km.

5. Accretion
o These processes result in planetesimals of tens

of kilometers in size in less than a million years
or so.
Dm/Dt ~ r4
o The bigger an object, the more able gravity is to
attract and accrete nearby objects.
o Not only will the rich get richer (i.e., the biggest Dm/Dt ~ r2
planetesimal will grow the fastest), but the
smaller planetesimals are quickly destroyed by
fast collisions and turned into smaller
fragments.
o So typically one object will dominate a region.

5. Accretion - planet formation
o Accretion therefore progresses according to:
Geometric Gravitational
Planetesimals
Accretion Accretion
o Once planetesimals are formed, the following can occur:
Planetesimals Protoplanets Planets

o The final stages in the growth of a Terrestrial planet are dramatic and violent.
o Large Mars-sized protoplanets collide to produce objects such as the Earth and
Venus (MEarth ~ 9 Mmars).

5. Accretion - the planets
o Inner Planets
o Formed slowly due to small amount of
metals and rocks in early solar nebula.
o Geometric accretion rate and
gravitational accretion rate small.
o By time inner planetesimals were formed
and had significant gravitational fields,
the nebula had been cleared out by the
solar wind.
o Then no nebular gas then present to
capture an elementary atmosphere.
o Outer Planets
o Formed less violently.
o Great quantities of ice at >3 AU resulted
in large rock/ice cores forming.
o Reason for rapid core growth is that ices
have large cross-sectional area.

5. Accretion - The planetesimal graveyard
o Asteroid belt is ‘resting ground’ for collision-

evolved planetesimals that were not incorporated
into a planet.
o Total mass of asteroid belt ~5 x 1021 kg (which is

about 1/3rd the mass of Pluto or 1/15th the mass
of the Moon).
o Ceres the largest asteroid has a diameter of 940

km and a mass of ~1021 kg.
o A planet probably did not form in this region

because of the rapid formation, and resulting large
mass of Jupiter.

Different Theories of The Formition or Origin of The Solar System

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Lecture 5-6 - Solar system formation theories

o Laplace nebula theory

o Jeans’ tidal theory

o Solar nebula theory

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Three basic models have been proposed:

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Proposed by Pierre Laplace in Exposition du

PY4A01 Solar System Science

1. Strongest criticism related to the distribution of AM.

2. While still a student at Cambridge, Maxwell suggested that differential rotation

o Gravitational attraction between objects in the rings would not be sufficient to

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Laplace theory was a monistic theory - same body of

o James Jeans (1917) proposed a dualistic theory that

o Jeans’ Theory involved interaction between Sun and

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Force of attraction between mass M and nearer satellite is:

 PY4A01 Solar System Science

o We can therefore rewrite the inequality Ftidal ≥ Fbinding as: 4GMmr Gm 2

o As M = 4/3 R3M and m = 4/3 r3m:

RRoche  2.520R  Approximate Roche Limit

o Objects which pass

o The Earth's Roche limit is ~18,470 km.

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Jeans showed that filament would be unstable, A

o Jeans treated as a wave-like problem, finding

1. Very massive stars are rare and distant.

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Modified version of Jeans’ theory, proposed Depleted proto-star

o Sun interacts with nearby protostar,

o Terrestrial planets due to collisions between

PY4A01 Solar System Science

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Cloud collapses according to the Jeans’ criterion. Collapse may be triggered by

o Once started, would continue to collapsing under Newton’s Laws.

o As collapse continues, temperature, density and rotation rate increase rapidly.

o Proceeds along five steps:

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o As gas cloud collapses, temperatures rise as

o From Conservation of Energy, KE increases as

o Some energy is radiated away thermally. The

o Protosun eventually becomes so hot that nuclear

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Solar nebula “spins-up” as it collapses to

o Cloud therefore spins up rapidly as it

o Rotation also ensures not all of material

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Net radial acceleration is

o Atequator ( =90) => a(r) = g - r2

o In disk, there’s a distance where g = r2=>

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Collisions further flatten the disk.

o Gas moves in random directions at random

o Original cloud thus become more orderly as

o Similarly, collisions between clumps of

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Formation of planets requires “seeds” -

o The process by which seeds were sown

o Condensation is temperature dependent.

PY4A01 Solar System Science

o Approximate equation for the temperature variation in Solar Nebula is

where R is in AU. “Ice line” where T = 273 K is located at ~3 AU from Sun.