CHAPTER 2

DIODE APPLICATIONS
The analysis of electronic circuits can follow one of the two paths :
1. Actual characteristic or approximate model of the device.
2. Approximate model will be always used in the analysis

VD= 0.7 V
 The load line plots all possible
current (ID) conditions for all
voltages applied to the diode
(VD) in a given circuit. E / R is
the maximum ID and E is the
maximum VD.

 Where the load line and the

characteristic curve intersect is
the Q-point, which specifies a
particular ID and VD for a given
circuit.

Fig. 2.1 Drawing the load line and

finding the point of operation
 The intersection of load line in Fig. 2.2 can
be determined by applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage in the clockwise direction, which
results in:
 E  VD  VR  0
Fig. 2.2 Series diode
E  VD  IDR
configuration

ID and VD are the same for Eq. (2.1) and plotted load line in Fig. 2.2 (previous
slide).
E
Set VD = 0 then we can get ID, where ID  VD  0
R
Set ID = 0 then we get VD, where VD  E ID  0
 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.3a, employing
the diode characteristics of Fig. 2.3b, determine VDQ, IDQ
and VR

Fig. 2.3 (a) Circuit; (b) characteristics.

 E 10V
ID  V  0   20mA
0.5k
D

R
VD  E I 0  10V
D

 From the result, plot the straight line across ID and VD.
 The resulting load line appears in Fig. 2.4. The Q points
occurred at
 VDQ  0.78 V
IDQ  18.5mA
 VR=IRR=IDQR=(18.5 mA)(1k) =18.5 V
 For the series diode configuration of Fig. 2.13, determine VD,
VR and ID.

Solution:

VD  0.7V
VR  E  VD  8V  0.7V  7.3V
VR 7.3V
ID  IR    3.32mA
R 2.2k
 Repeat example 2.4 with the diode reversed

Solution:
Open Circuit

ID  0
E  VD  VR  0
VD   E  VR  8V  0V  8V
 Rectifier: An
electronic circuit
that converts AC to
pulsating DC.
 Basic function of a
DC power supply is
to convert an AC
voltage to a smooth
DC voltage.
 The diode conducts
during the positive
half cycle.

 The diode does not

conducts during the
negative half cycle.
 Fig. 2.44 Half-wave rectifier.

Fig. 2.45 Conduction region (0  T/2).

Fig. 2.46 Nonconduction region (T/2  T).

The average value of the half-
wave rectified output voltage
(also known as DC voltage)
is

Vm
Vdc  0.318Vm 

The process of removing one-
half the input signal to establish a
dc level is called half-wave
rectification
What is the average value of the half-wave
rectified voltage?

Solution: Vm/π = 15.9 V

 Applied signal at least 0.7 for diode to turn on (Vk = 0.7V)
 i ≤ 0.7 V  diode in open circuit and o = 0V
 When conducting, Vk=0.7V ,then o= i – Vk  this
cause reduction in o, thus reduce the resulting dc voltage
level.
 Now Vdc  0.318 (Vm – Vk)
Draw the output voltages of each rectifier for the
indicated input voltages.
 PIV=peak input voltage
and is the maximum
voltage across the
diode when it is not
conducting/reverse
bias.
 Can be found by
applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law. The load
voltage is 0V so the
input voltage is across
the diode at tp.
 Because the diode is only forward biased for one-half of
the AC cycle, it is also reverse biased for one-half cycle.
 It is important that the reverse breakdown voltage rating
of the diode be high enough to withstand the peak,
reverse-biasing AC voltage.
 PIV=Vm OR accurately
 PIV (or PRV)  Vm

• PIV = Peak inverse voltage

• PRV = Peak reverse voltage
• Vm = Peak AC voltage

Diode must capable to withstand certain

amount of repetitive reverse voltage
 A full-wave rectifier allows current to
flow during both the positive and
negative half cycles or the full 360°.
 Output frequency is twice the input
frequency.
 VDC or VAVG = 2Vm/π
 The rectification process can be
improved by using more diodes
in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
 Full-wave rectification produces
a greater DC output: Full Wave Rectifier
Half-wave: Vdc =0.318Vm
=Vm/π
Full-wave: Vdc =0.636Vm
=2Vm/π

Half Wave Rectifier

Find average value of the full-wave
rectified voltage?
Center-Tapped Transformer Rectifier
Requires
 Two diodes
Center-tapped transformer

VDC=0.636(Vm)
  Current flow direction during both alternations. The peak
output is about half of the secondary windings total
voltage.
 Each diode is subjected to a PIV of the full secondary
winding output minus one diode voltage drop

PIV=2Vm(out)+0.7V
During positive half-cycles, D1 is
forward-biased while D2 is
reverse-biased.

During negative half-cycles, D2

is forward-biased while D1 is
reverse-biased.
Bridge Rectifier

 Four diodes are required

 VDC = 0.636 Vm
  The full-wave bridge rectifier takes advantage of the full
output of the secondary winding.
 It employs four diode arranged such that current flows in the
direction through the load during each half of the cycle.

During positive half-cycle of the

input, D1 and D2 are forward-
biased and conduct current. D3
and D4 are reverse-biased.

During negative half-cycle of the

input, D3 and D4 are forward-
biased and conduct current. D1
and D2 are reverse-biased.
 The PIV for a bridge rectifier is approximately half the PIV
for a center-tapped rectifier.
PIV=Vm(out)+0.7V
 Rectifier Ideal VDC Practical PIV
(approximate) VDC
Half-Wave VDC = 0.318(Vm) VDC = 0.318(Vm)-0.7 PIV=Vm
Rectifier = Vm/π
Full-Wave Bridge VDC = 0.636(Vm) VDC = 0.636(Vm)- PIV=2Vm-0.7V
Rectifier =2 Vm/π 2(0.7)
Center-Tapped VDC = 0.636(Vm) VDC = 0.636(Vm)-0.7 PIV=Vm-0.7V
Transformer =2 Vm/π
Rectifier

Vm = peak of the AC voltage = Vp

In the center tapped transformer rectifier circuit, the peak AC voltage is

the transformer secondary voltage to the tap.
 In most power supply – 60 Hz ac power line voltage 
constant dc voltage
 Pulsating dc output must be filtered to reduce the
large voltage variation
 Small amount of fluctuation in the filter o/p voltage -
ripple
 Surge Current in the Capacitor-Input Filter:
 Being that the capacitor appears as a short during the
initial charging, the current through the diodes can
momentarily be quite high. To reduce risk of
damaging the diodes, a surge current limiting resistor
is placed in series with the filter and load.
The min. surge
Resistor values:

V p (sec)  1.4V
Rsurge 
I FSM
IFSM = forward surge current rating
specified on diode data
sheet.
 Regulation is the last step in eliminating the remaining
ripple and maintaining the output voltage to a specific
value. Typically this regulation is performed by an
integrated circuit regulator. There are many different types
used based on the voltage and current requirements.
 How well the regulation is performed by a regulator is measured
by it’s regulation percentage. There are two types of regulation,
line and load.
 Line and load regulation percentage is simply a ratio of change
in voltage (line) or current (load) as a percentage.
 Ripple Voltage: the variation in the capacitor voltage due to
charging and discharging is called ripple voltage
 Ripple voltage is undesirable: thus, the smaller the ripple, the
better the filtering action
 The advantage of a full-wave rectifier over a half-wave is quite
clear. The capacitor can more effectively reduce the ripple when
the time between peaks is shorter. Figure (a) and (b)

Easier to filter
-shorted time between
peaks.
-smaller ripple.
Ripple factor: indication of the effectiveness of the filter
Vr ( pp )
r [half-wave rectifier]
VDC
Vr(pp) = peak to peak ripple voltage; VDC = VAVG = average value of filter’s
output voltage.
•Lower ripple factor  better filter
[can be lowered by increasing the value of •For the full-wave rectifier:
filter capacitor  1 
or increasing the load resistance] Vr ( pp)   V p ( rect )
 fRLC 
 1 
VDC  VAVG  1  V p ( rect )
 2 fRL C 

Vp(rect) = unfiltered
peak.
Clippers are networks that employ diodes to
“clip” away a of an input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform.

Clippers used to clip-off portions of signal

voltages above or below certain levels.
  RL 
Vout   Vin
 R1  RL 
What would you expect to see displayed on an oscilloscope connected
across RL in the limiter shown in above figure.
  RL   1.0k 
Vout   Vin   10V  9.09V
 R1  RL   1.1k 
 A positive limiter

 The level to which an ac voltage is limited can be adjusted by

adding a bias voltage, VBIAS in series with the diode
 The voltage at point A must equal VBIAS + 0.7 V before the diode
become forward-biased and conduct.
 Once the diode begins to conduct, the voltage at point A is
limited to VBIAS + 0.7 V, so that all input voltage above this level
is clipped off.
 A negative limiter

 In this case, the voltage at point A must go below –VBIAS – 0.7V to

forward-bias the diode and initiate limiting action as shown in
the above figure.
Figure above shows combining a positive limiter with a negative
limiter. Determine the output voltage waveform?
In this examples
VD = 0
In analysis, VD = 0
or VD = 0.7 V can
be used. Both are
right assumption.
In this examples
VD = 0
In analysis, VD = 0
or VD = 0.7 V can
be used. Both are
right assumption.
 A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a
resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without changing the appearance
of the applied signal.
 Sometimes known as dc restorers
 Clamping networks have a capacitor connected
directly from input to output with a resistive
element in parallel with the output signal. The
diode is also parallel with the output signal but
may or may not have a series dc supply as an
added elements.
Positive clamper operation. (Diode pointing up – away from
ground)
Negative clamper operation (Diode pointing
down – toward ground)
 If diode is pointing up (away from ground),
the circuit is a positive clamper.
 If the diode is pointing down (toward
ground), the circuit is a negative clamper
 Diode Clamper

Diode ‘ON’ state Diode ‘OF’ state Output

V – Vc = 0 ; Vc = V; Vo = 0.7 V but -V - Vc - Vo = 0; Vc = V
ideal Vo = 0V
Vo = -2 V
 Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes and
capacitors to step up the output voltage of rectifier circuits.

 Voltage Doubler
 Voltage Tripler
 Voltage Quadrupler
 This half-wave voltage doubler’s output can be
calculated by:
Vout = VC2 = 2Vm
where Vm = peak secondary voltage of the transformer
 Positive Half-Cycle
◦ D1 conducts
◦ D2 is switched off
◦ Capacitor C1 charges to Vm

 Negative Half-Cycle
◦ D1 is switched off
◦ D2 conducts
◦ Capacitor C2 charges to Vm

 Vout = VC2 = 2Vm

Positif Half-Cycle Negative Half-Cycle

• D1 forward-biased → C1 • D1 reverse-biased
charges to Vp • D2 forward-biased → C2
• D2 reverse-biased charges to Vp

Output voltage=2Vp (across 2

capacitors in series
Positive half-cycle: C1 charges to Vp through D1
Negative half-cycle: C2 charges to 2Vp through D2
Positive half-cycle: C3 charges to 2Vp through D3
Output: 3Vp across C1 and C3
Output: 4Vp across C2 and C4
 The data sheet for diodes and other devices gives
detailed information about specific characteristics
such as the various maximum current and voltage
ratings, temperature range, and voltage versus
current curves (V-I characteristic).
 It is sometimes a very valuable piece of
information, even for a technician. There are cases
when you might have to select a replacement diode
when the type of diode needed may no longer be
available.
 These are the absolute max. values under which
the diode can be operated without damage to the
device.
Rating Symbol 1N4001 1N4002 1N4003 UNIT
Peak repetitive reverse voltage VRRM
Working peak reverse voltage VRWM 50 100 200 V
DC blocking voltage VR
Nonrepetitive peak reverse VRSM 60 120 240 V
voltage
rms reverse voltage VR(rms) 35 70 140 V
Average rectified forward Io A
current (single-phase, resistive 1
load, 60Hz, TA = 75oC
Nonrepetitive peak surge IFSM A
current (surge applied at rated 30 (for 1
load conditions) cycle)
Operating and storage junction Tj, Tstg -65 to oC

temperature range +175

  The zener diode – silicon pn-junction device-designed for
operate in the reverse-biased region

Schematic diagram shown that this particular Zener diode symbol

zener circuit will work to maintain 10 V across
the load
 Breakdown voltage – set by controlling the doping level during
manufacture
 When diode reached reverse breakdown – voltage remains
constant- current change drastically
 If zener diode is FB – operates the same as a rectifier diode
 A zener diode is much like a normal diode – but if it is placed in
the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown.
 Note that it’s forward characteristics are just like a normal diode.

1.8V – 200V
 The reverse voltage (VR) is increased – the reverse current (IR) remains
extremely small up to the “knee”of the curve
 Reverse current – called the zener current, IZ
 At the bottom of the knee- the zener breakdown voltage (VZ) remains
constant although it increase slightly as the zener current, IZ increase.
 IZK – min. current required to maintain voltage regulation
 IZM – max. amount of current the diode can handle without being
damage/destroyed
 IZT – the current level at which the VZ rating of diode is measured
(specified on a data sheet)
 The zener diode maintains a constant voltage for value of reverse
current rating from IZK to IZM
 Since the actual voltage is not ideally vertical, the
change in zener current produces a small change in
zener voltage
 By ohm’s law: V
ZZ  Z
I Z
 Normaly -Zz is specified at IZT
Zener impedance
 As with most devices, zener diodes have given characteristics
such as temperature coefficients and power ratings that have
to be considered. The data sheet provides this information
 Zener diode can be used as

1. Voltage regulator for providing stable

reference voltages
2. Simple limiters or clippers
 As i/p voltage varies (within limits) – zener diode
maintains a constant o/p voltage
 But as VIN changes, IZ will change, so i/p voltage
variations are set by the min. & max. current value
(IZK & IZM) which the zener can operate
 Resistor, R –current limiting resistor
 The zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across RL as
long as the zener current is greater than IZK and less than IZM

 When the o/p terminal of the zener diode is open (RL=∞)-load

current is zero and all of the current is through the zener
 When a load resistor (R) is connected, current flow through zener
& load RL, IL, IZ
 The zener diode continues to regulate the voltage until IZ
reaches its min value , IZK
 At this point, the load current is max. , the total current through
R remains essentially constant.
Zener diode also can be used in ac applications to limit voltage swings to
desired level
(a) To limit the +ve peak of a signal voltage to the selected zener voltage
- During –ve alternation, zener arts as FB diode & limits the –ve voltage
to -0.7V
(b) Zener diode is turn around
-The –ve peak is by zener action & +ve voltage is limited to +0.7V
(c) Two back-to-back zeners limit both peaks to the zener voltage ±7V
-During the +ve alternation, D2 is functioning as the zener limiter – D1
is functioning as a FB diode.
-During the –ve alternation-the roles are reversed