Chapter 4

Philosophy of Physical Education,

Exercise Science, and Sport

The love, study, and

pursuit of wisdom,
knowledge, and truth

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 Five Traditional Philosophies
 Idealism — a philosophical theory advocating that reality
depends on the mind for existence and truth is universal and
absolute
 Realism — the philosophical system stressing that the laws
and order of the world as revealed by science are independent
from human experiences
 Naturalism — a belief that the laws of nature govern life and
individual goals are more important than societal goals
 Pragmatism — an American movement in philosophy
emphasizing reality as the sum total of each individual’s
experiences through practical experimentation
 Existentialism — a twentieth-century philosophy that centers
on individual choices and advocates that truth and values are
uniquely personal

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 Idealism
 Since reasoning and mental processes are
important in understanding truth, the physical
therapist uses idealism in working with clients
to set realistic goals, persist in their movement
experiences, and realize that only by dealing
with temporary discomfort can they recover as
fully as possible.
 The idealist and the sport psychologist
understand reality is more mental than
physical, so helping elite athletes manage the
mental side of putting a golf ball or kicking a
field goal is vitally important.
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 Realism
 The exercise physiologist uses the scientific
method in investigating the effects of
performance-enhancing drugs in order to
understand positive and negative effects on the
body.
 Prior to beginning an exercise program, a
personal trainer will assess the capabilities of
the client, and, as would a realist, continue to
use measurements to determine progress made
in achieving personal fitness goals.
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 Naturalism
 Lakes, mountains, and other outdoor settings
provide a wealth of opportunities where
recreation specialists use natural settings as
learning laboratories so individuals can expand
their skills while enjoying leisure time.
 Physical education teachers agree with the
philosophy of naturalism and a readiness to
learn as they instruct students in
developmentally appropriate movement
activities.
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 Pragmatism
 Athletic directors are quite pragmatic in
understanding they must generate increased
revenues from ticket sales, broadcast rights,
corporate sponsorships, and private donations
to adequately support their teams.
 Directors of recreational facilities realize
participants are practical and pragmatic about
use of leisure time as they seek to enjoy
pleasurable, convenient activities with friends,
such as playing on a softball team or using
walking trails
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 Existentialism
 While health educators stress the importance of
making selections of nutritious foods and
physical educators emphasize engaging in daily
physical activities, each individual makes
choices with the full realization of the
consequences of these choices on their health
and well-being.
 While an athletic trainer can inform an athlete
about the rehabilitation program to be
completed, athletes must accept personal
responsibility and demonstrate self-discipline to
complete the exercises and adhere to the
rehabilitation programs to return to competition.
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Idealism — Truth is universal and
absolute
 The mind is critical to all
understanding since only
through reasoning and mental
processes can truth emerge.
 Never-changing ideals comprise
the ultimate reality.
 Ideals, virtues, and truths are
universal and remain the same
regardless of how individuals
Plato
may interpret them.
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Idealism — Truth is universal and
absolute
 The mind and the body are
optimally developed
simultaneously and as a whole,
although physical activity is
secondary to the development
of the mind and thought
processes.
 The idealist believes there is
one correct way to perform
Plato sports skills.
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 Realism — Scientific laws are
independent of human experiences
 The scientific laws of nature
determine what is truth.
 The scientific method
provides the process for
acquiring and applying truth
( i.e., knowledge originates
in the physical world but
emerges through
experimentation). Aristotle
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 Realism — Scientific laws are
independent of human experiences
 The physical education
curriculum includes
activities and experiences
that enable students to
understand the laws of the
physical world.
 Learning is subject centered
and includes progressions,
drills, and objective
evaluation. Aristotle
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Naturalism — Laws of nature govern
life and individual goals
 Truth and things valued exist
within the physical realm of
nature.
 “Everything according to nature”
means students learn and develop
in and through nature.
Rousseau  Physical well-being enhances a
readiness to learn mental, moral,
and social skills.
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Naturalism — Laws of nature govern
life and individual goals
 Individualized learning occurs
through self-discovery and
exploration of one’s capabilities
and interests.
 Through problem-solving,
students progress in skill
development at their own rates.
Rousseau

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Pragmatism — Reality is a total of
individual experiences
 Ultimate reality must be
experienced and is ever-changing
rather than absolute.
 Truth and values are functions of
the consequences of the time and
context.
John Dewey
 Social responsibilities are essential
as every individual functions with
and contributes to society.
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 Pragmatism — Reality is a total of
individual experiences
 Students develop social efficiency
as they experience solving the
problems of life and learn how to
become better functioning members
of society.
 A student-centered curriculum
John Dewey
encourages students to develop
social and interpersonal skills and
set and achieve personal goals.
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Existentialism — Truth and values are
based on one’s experiences
 Human experiences and individual
determinism (choices) construct
reality.
 Each person’s experiences
determine truth, which is uniquely
personal.
 An individual’s value system,

Jean-Paul Sartre
which is uniquely chosen, is
tempered by an understanding of
social responsibility.
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Existentialism — Truth and values are
based on one’s experiences
 The desired educational outcome is
the self-actualizing person, who
must accept the consequences of
actions taken.
 Individualized activities in physical
education and sport encourage
creativity and self-awareness and
Jean-Paul Sartre personal responsibility for learning.

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 Importance of the Body
 Idealism — simultaneous
development with the mind
 Realism — emphasis on the whole
individual
 Naturalism — physical activity
essential for optimal learning
 Pragmatism — variety of activities
for the effective functioning in
society
 Existentialism — freedom to
choose activity and be creative
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 Curricular Focus
 Idealism — teacher centered using examples as
models; qualitative
 Realism — subject centered; quantitative
 Naturalism — individual readiness to learn
 Pragmatism — student centered; based on
individual differences
 Existentialism — individual centered; based on
self-realization

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 Importance of the Teacher
 Idealism — model and example
 Realism — orderly presentation of
facts; learning through drills
 Naturalism — guide and helper
 Pragmatism — motivator, especially
through problem solving
 Existentialism — stimulator and
counselor

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 Objectives

 Idealism — developing personality and the

mind
 Realism — preparing students to meet the
realities of life
 Naturalism — developing the whole person
 Pragmatism — helping students to become
better functioning members of society
 Existentialism — assisting students to
become self-actualizing, independent beings
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 Methodology
 Idealism — lecture; question-answer
discussions
 Realism — use of real-world drills,
lectures, and projects
 Naturalism — informal; problem
solving
 Pragmatism — problem solving
 Existentialism — questions raised,
thoughts provoked, and freedom of
action encouraged by the teacher
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 Evaluation
 Idealism — subjective; qualitative
 Realism — quantitative; using
scientific means
 Naturalism — based on the
attainment of individual goals
 Pragmatism — subjective and self-
evaluation
 Existentialism — unimportant in
the traditional sense

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 Philosophy Quiz*
1. The __________ advocates that students must
indicate their readiness to attempt to learn a
cartwheel.
2. The __________ models or provides
demonstrations of exactly how to serve a
volleyball.
3. The __________ encourages students to use
reasoning powers to decide how to align
defensive players to stop an opposing team
from executing fast breaks.

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 Philosophy Quiz
4. Since a curriculum based on this philosophy
focuses on the individual, the __________
focuses on teaching acceptance of self-
responsibility.
5. The __________ emphasizes learning team
sports through which social skills are
developed.
6. A physical education and sport researcher is
sometimes called a/an __________ because
she or he utilizes the scientific method of
inquiry.
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 Philosophy Quiz
7. To the _________ free choices determine
reality and truth, such as in setting up a
preferred type of exercise program.
8. The __________ advocates that reality is more
mental than physical, such as perfecting
shooting technique for free throws through
mental practice.
9. Since experience is critical for learning to the
__________, especially as a member of a
group, students are encouraged to experiment
with their own techniques in executing bodily
movements.
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 Philosophy Quiz
10.The __________ uses natural settings
as learning laboratories during leisure
hours.

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 Sport Ethics

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 The Ineligible Player
Tomorrow your school’s girls’ basketball team will play in the
state championship game. Everyone in the school and your
small town is excited. A telephone call you just received from
the new athletic director (Stacy Miller) suddenly threatens to
change everything. Miller tells you Jody, the 24-points per
game star, is too old. In completing some required paperwork
for the state athletic association, she realized what the previous
athletic director had not reported, which is that Jody has been
20 years old all season, thus making her ineligible for high
school sports. You are distraught because you know Jody is
from a single-parent home and has had past academic and
behavioral problems in school. But, she has overcome these and
changed since she joined the basketball team. Miller is willing
to keep this matter quiet, but says as coach you will have to
decide whether to play Jody in the game or even to play the
game.

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 Understanding Ethics

 Ethics is the study of moral values or the doing

of good toward others or oneself; the study of
the principles of human duty; the study of all
moral qualities that distinguish an individual
relative to others
 Moral pertains to an individual’s motives,
intentions, and actions as right or wrong,
virtuous or vicious, or good or bad
 Values are anything having relative worth
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  Moral values are the relative
worth placed on virtuous
behaviors.
 Principles are universal rules of
conduct that identify what kinds
of actions, intentions, and
motives are valued.
 Moral reasoning is the
systematic process of evaluating
personal values and developing
a consistent and an impartial set
of moral principles by which to
live.
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 Moral Acting Moral acting is how
we act based on what
Moral reasoning is we know and value.
the systematic
process of
evaluating personal Moral valuing is the basis
of what we believe about
values and ourselves, society, and
developing a others around us.
consistent and
impartial set of Moral knowing is
moral principles by
which to live. Moral the cognitive
phase of learning
about moral issues
Reasoning and how to resolve
them.

Moral Moral
Valuing Knowing
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 Example of Moral Values and Principles
 Justice (treating others with
fairness)
 Do not violate the rules
of the game
 Honesty (being trustworthy)
 Do not cheat or lie

 Responsibility (fulfilling duty)

 Do not act irresponsibly

 Beneficence (fair play or doing

good)
 Do not harm an opponent

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 Moral Justification*
 Try to make it seem that the unethical action is really
ethical, such as by claiming there is no rule against it,
no one will ever know, or everyone else does it.
 State that the action is not unethical since the action
harmed no one or no foul was called or penalty
assessed.
 Argue that while a rule was violated, the situation
along with the amount of good accomplished
overshadowed the small amount of harm; that is, the
end justifies the means.

*Stoll & Beller (2006) p. 79

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 Ethical Theories
 Teleological or consequential (utilitarianism)
theories focus on the end results or
consequences of processes or occurrences; the
ultimate standard of what is morally right is
dependent on the greatest amount of good for
the greatest number of people.
 Deontological or non-consequential (Kantian)
theories state that actions must conform to
absolute rules of moral behavior; there is an
inherent rightness apart from all consequences.

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 Ethical Principles
 Moral duties are prescriptive and
independent of consequences.
 Fair play means playing within the
letter and spirit of the rules.
 Seeking to win is acceptable only if
the letter and spirit of the rules are
followed.
 An opponent is not the enemy but a
worthy athlete deserving to be
treated exactly as everyone would
wish to be treated.
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 Ethical Principles
 Retribution is never acceptable regardless of the
unfairness or violence of the initial action.
 Games are not played to intimidate; the ideal
purpose is a mutual quest for excellence through
challenge.
 Sportsmanship requires modesty, humility in
victory, praise for the winners, and self-respect in
defeat.

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 Is This Conduct Ethical?
A defensive back is beaten by the opposing
wide receiver, resulting in a big play for the
offense. On a subsequent play, the defensive
back “takes out” his opponent with vicious
blind side hit to the knees, even though he is
not involved with action near the ball. Is this
hit ethical? If not, how should this
intimidation be punished?

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 Is This Conduct Ethical?
In his first at-bat after his grand-slam home run,
Mike is prepared for a brush-back pitch. He is not
ready for the inside fast ball aimed straight at his
head. He attempts to bail out of the batter’s box but
is hit by a pitch on the arm. He jumps up and
charges the mound, bat in hand, as both benches
clear. The ensuing brawl results in the ejection of
several players from the game. Why is the brush
back pitch seemingly an acceptable form of
gamesmanship in baseball? Does a ball thrown at a
batter’s head justify his charging the mound? Why
are teammates expected to join in the fray?
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 Is This Conduct Ethical?
The shoving match underneath the basket has
escalated without any fouls being called. Finally,
Mary has had enough. The next time Pat pushes
her to clear the lane, Mary grabs her and refuses
to give ground. Pat retaliates by hitting Mary.
Before the referees can break up the scuffle,
punches from several players have landed. Who
is violating the rules of the game and
sportsmanship in this situation? Is the absence of
a whistle calling a foul on Mary, Pat, or both
tantamount to condoning their intimidation of
each other?
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 Ethical Choices in Sports
1. Should every child get an opportunity to play all
Does
positions in youth sports?
the
level 2. Should a coach have the right to require that an
of athlete (at any age) compete in only one sport?
sport 3. Should an athlete be required to pass all school
matter? subjects in order to play on a team?
4. Should a coach teach athletes how to violate a
sports rule to gain a competitive advantage?
5. When, if ever, should a team “run up the score”
on an opposing team?
6. Should taunting an opponent be penalized or
allowed and why?
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 SUCCESS
THE PYRAMID OF Success is peace of mind
SUCCESS which is a direct result of
John R. Wooden self-satisfaction in knowing
COMPETITIVE you did your best to
Former Basketball Coach GREATNESS
“When the going gets become the best that you
tough, the tough get
UCLA going.” Be at your best
are capable of becoming.
when your best is needed.
Real love of a hard battle.

POISE
Just being yourself. Being
at ease in any situation.
Never fighting yourself.
CONFIDENCE
Respect without fear.
Confident not cocky. May
come from faith in yourself
in knowing that you are
prepared.

CONDITION SKILL TEAM SPIRIT

Mental - Moral - Physical.
A knowledge of and the
Rest, exercise, and diet must An eagerness to sacrifice
ability to properly execute
be considered. Moderation personal interests or glory
the fundamentals. Be
must be practiced. for the welfare of all. The
prepared. Cover every
Dissipation must be team comes first.
detail.
eliminated.

SELF-CONTROL ALERTNESS INITIATIVE INTENTNESS

Emotions under control. Be observing constantly. Cultivate the ability to Ability to resist temptation and
Delicate adjustment Be quick to spot a make decisions and think stay with your course.
between mind and body. weakness and correct it or alone. Desire to excel. Concentrate on your objective
Keep judgment and use it as the case may and be determined to reach
common sense. warrant. your goal.

INDUSTRIOUSNESS FRIENDSHIP LOYALTY COOPERATION ENTHUSIASM

There is no substitute for Comes from mutual To yourself and to all those With all levels of your co- Your heart must be in your
work. Worthwhile things esteem, respect, and dependent upon you. workers. Help others and work. Stimulate others.
come from hard work and devotion. A sincere liking Keep your self-respect. see the other side.
careful planning. for all.

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 The driving force for cheating within sport is to gain a competitive
advantage. Some athletes and coaches behave as if they will do whatever it takes to
win. This may mean intentionally teaching, learning, and executing actions in
violation of the rules. For example, in basketball near the end of a closely contested
game, athletes on the team with fewer points intentionally foul opposing athletes
hoping the free throws will be missed and possession of the ball can be regained and
more points scored to try to win. Most would argue this is good strategy. How is an
intentional rule violation congruent with the spirit of the rules?
The concept of moral callousness suggests that over time individuals can
grow hardened, such as when athletes make less morally reasoned decisions the
longer they are involved with sports. To emphasize how intentionally fouling at the
end of the game to stop the clock illustrates moral callousness, consider how the
game was played decades ago. This type of rule violation did not occur, and the
intentional grabbing or hacking of an opponent to prolong the game would have been
viewed as unsportsmanlike. Has the perception changed because the strategy might
help win the game? Is it good sportsmanship for a football player to fake an injury
near to get the clock stopped? Some state this is cheating, while others argue this is
good strategy. Has moral callousness in some sports changed intentional rule
violations into good strategy?

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 Problems with the Moral
Groupthink
occurs when Reasoning of Athletes
a team or  The longer athletes participate in sport,
group of the lower their moral reasoning.
athletes  Males have lower levels of moral
emphasizes reasoning than do females.
agreement  Team sport athletes show lower levels of
rather than moral reasoning than do individual sport
the courage athletes.
to make
morally  The moral reasoning of interscholastic
reasoned athletes is less consistent, impartial, and
decisions. reflective than is that of non-athletes.

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 Character Counts!
 Six pillars of character
 Trustworthiness — be honest; do not cheat; be reliable;

have the courage to do the right thing

 Respect — be considerate of the feelings of others; do

not threaten, hit, or hurt anyone

 Responsibility — do what you are supposed to do; be

self-disciplined
 Fairness — play by the rules; do not take advantage of

others
 Caring — be kind; be compassionate; show you care

 Citizenship—be cooperative; obey laws and rules

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National Association of Intercollegiate
Athletics — Champions of Character
 Instill an understanding of character values in
sport
 Core values
 Respect

 Responsibility

 Integrity

 Servant leadership

 Sportsmanship

 Provide practical tools for student-athletes,

coaches, and parents to use in modeling
exemplary character traits
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It Really Is Not Only about Winning!
 Olympic Creed — "The most
important thing in the Olympic
Games is not to win but to take
part just as the most important
thing in life is not the triumph, but
the struggle. The essential thing is
not to have conquered, but to
have fought well."
 “For when the One Great Scorer
comes to mark against your name,
He writes not that you won or lost
but how you played the Game.”
(Grantland Rice)
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