 An Ecosystem consists of all living (biotic) and non-

living (abiotic) things in a specific normal setting

(area).
 Biotic & abiotic factors are linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flows.
 Ecosystem basically means a relationship between
organisms and their environment.
3.1.1. Seven types of Ecosystems
 The basic classification of ecosystems are:
Terrestrial (land based) ecosystems and Aquatic
ecosystems
 It may also be natural and artificial (man-made)
 Artificial Ecosystems - Agricultural fields, artificial
aquaculture ponds, tanks etc
 Biotic and abiotic
factors interact with
each other for the
smooth functioning of
the ecosystem
 Eg: Photosynthesis
 Plants intake the
elements from sunlight
and air which helps
them with the process
of photosynthesis
 The sum total of biological material in all three
biotic components of the ES is called Biomass
 Green Plants capable of photosynthesis are the
producers
 Photosynthesis happens when the green pigment
(chlorophyll) present in the leaves of higher plants &
in algal cells, uses water, carbon dioxide & sunlight
for the synthesis of glucose.
 Glucose is the ultimate source of all other energy-
yielding food materials
 Microorganisms and bacteria can produce organic
matter even in the absence of sunlight. This process is
called chemosynthesis
 Both these producers are called autotrophs, because
they are capable of food production.
 Consumers depend upon plants and other
organisms, directly or indirectly for food.
 They are classified into herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores and detritivorous (bacteria) within
three levels, i.e., primary, secondary and tertiary
 Primary consumers - all herbivores which feeds
on plants – cows, elephants, mites etc
 Secondary consumers – carnivores feeding on
herbivores – lion, tiger, wolf etc
 Omnivores – who feed on both plants and
animals – humans
 Tertiary consumers – carnivores feeding on other
carnivores – snake, vulture etc
 Organisms which consist of bacteria and fungi
which feed on dead plants and animals
 They break down complex organic molecules into
simpler organic compounds for their energy needs
 Organic matter (detritus) is broken down into
carbon dioxide, water and mineral nutrients
 These released nutrients are then used by primary
producers.
 Relevance: This is the major source of nutrients in
most ecosystems. Also it maintains an ecosystem
clean and healthy
 Physical factors in a
particular area
determine the type of
organisms that exist in
a specific ES. An ES
receives energy from
the sun, which is used
for all the life activities.
 Chemical Factors
which are the nutrients
present in the abiotic
factors influence the
state of an ecosystem
 The principle of biotic balance: The production & consumption
levels in the ES are harmoniously balanced by the members of the
community.
 Trophic Levels: The number of food stages presents in the ES
 First stage (Producers – Plants) – Second stage (Primary
consumers) – Third stage (secondary consumers) – Third stage
(tertiary)
 These stages can vary on different ecosystems according to the
abiotic factors
3.2.3.1 Food chain
 The mode of transfer of food energy from plants through a series
of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten processes, is
called a food chain.
 Grasses – cattle – man (a chain of 3 links)
 Grasses – grass hopper – birds – hawks (a chain of 4 links)
 Plankton – crustaceans – other carnivores animals/fishes – birds
(a chain of 4 links)
 Grazing Food Chain: It is the main food cain.
Autotrophs/plants – herbivores /predators –
 Detritus food chain: Debris/waste –
bacteria/fungi – small fishes – carnivores
 Parasitic food chain: Parasites which derive
nutrition from other animals and plants constitute
a link (lice or small insects in the body of
herbivores or carnivores – birds – carnivores)
 The interconnected links forming some sort of
interlocking pattern between different food chains
is called Food web (a network of many food
chains)
 Different combinations of food chains coexist in
different ES
 Simple Food web: Antartic ES
 Complex Food web: Tropical rainforest
 It helps regulate the population of various species
in the ES
 The graphical
representation of the
amount of energy or
biomass or number of
individuals in each
trophic level in the biotic
community of the ES, in
the form of a pyramid is
called an ecological
pyramid.
 There are three general
types of ecological
pyramids: 1) Pyramid of
numbers 2) Pyramid of
biomass 3) Pyramid of
energy
 The turnover of energy in an ES is Energy Flow
 Factors which affect EF:
 The efficiency of the producers in absorption &
conversion of solar energy
 Consumers’ consumption of converted energy
 Total output of energy in the form of food
 The efficiency of assimilation of this food
 The loss of energy through respiration, heat, secretion etc
 Gross & net production
10% of the net energy from one trophic level is passed on
to the next. This reduction is due to respiration, growth,
reproduction, defecation and non-predatory death.
 Just like the energy flow in ES, nutrients also cycle around.
 The major elements which compose the bulk of living
organisms are: carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous,
sulphur
The Carbon cycle
 Carbon is the backbone of life on Earth and the basis of
living cells.
 DNA is made of two intertwined molecules built around a
carbon chain.
 It is the major source of energy for human civilization
 Fourth abundant element on earth
 Carbon is essential for life in Earth, but it is also the cause for
climate change too. Human intervention which puts more
carbon than the balanced cycle results in warmer
temperatures on the planet
 Major constituent of air (78%)
 Though an essential nutrient it
cannot be taken up directly by
plants or animals
 It is fixed as compounds so
that plants could take it from
the soil
 Lightning converts
atmospheric nitrogen into
oxides
 Certain bacteria also help with
nitrogen fixation
 Like carbon, Nitrogen also
passes through various trophic
levels and after decay is
released as ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates.
 Succession is a directional, non-seasonal, cumulative
change in the types of species that occupy a given area
through time.
 It may happen by 1. Formation of a new habitat or 2.
Disturbance of an already existing habitat
 In some communities succession reaches a climax, and
produces a stable community dominated by a small
number of prominent species. This state of equilibrium
is called climax community
 Succession is based on the principle that nothing in life
ever remains the same but all habits are in a process of
constant change as a result of the interaction with
ecological system
 The process of initial invasion
and gradual progression from
one biotic community to the
next, occurring in a sterile
area which has not been
inhabites by any biota is
called Primary succession.
 An island formed by volcanic
eruption. Eg: Hawaiian
islands
 Picture: Hawaii
 Secondary succession occurs
where an early community
has been damaged, leaving a
few organisms and
considerable amount of
organic matter. The already
existing species, along with
some new ones, regenerate a
new community. It usually
happens after natural
calamities such as sorest fire,
flood or climate change. A
destroyed grassland take 50-
100 yrs to grow, while a
forest take more than 200
years.
 3.3.1. Forest Eco system
 40% of the total land surface (only 31% in reality – the
book was published in 2016 and the forest cover of that
year was 30% n it had merely grown to 31% now)
 Depending on the climatic conditions forests are
divided into four:
 Tropical forests - rainforests that occur in areas
of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry
season – all months have an average precipitation of at
least 60 mm. Tropical Rainforests of India, are found in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats,
and the greater Assam region in the north-east. Small
remnants of rainforest are found in Odisha state.
 subtropical ecosystems
which are seasonal
(wet/dry cycles). The
Meghalaya subtropical
forests is a montane
subtropical moist broadleaf
forest ecoregion of eastern
India. The ecoregion covers
an area of 41,700 square
kilometers (16,100 sq mi),
encompassing the Khasi
Hills, Garo Hills,
and Jaintia Hills of India's
Meghalaya state, and
adjacent portions of Assam
state.
 Picture: Meghalaya
Subtropical forest
 A temperate forest is
a forest found between the tropics
and polar regions in the area of the
earth with the widest seasonal
changes, the temperate zone. They
fall into one of several main types:
deciduous, coniferous, broadleaf
and mixed forest and rainforest.
Occurring in the temperate zone of
the Himalayas between 1500 and
3300 metres where the annual
rainfall varies from 150 cm
to 250 cm, the Himalayan moist
temperate forests cover the entire
length of this mountain range in
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Darjeeling and
Sikkim.
 Alpine biomes are found in mountain
regions worldwide, including the
Andes, Alps, and Rocky Mountains.
The alpine biome usually lies between
an altitude of about 10,000 feet (3,000
meters), and the place where the snow
line of a mountain begins.
Moist alpines are found all along the
Himalayas and on the higher hills
near the Myanmar border. It has a low
scrub, dense evergreen forest,
consisting mainly of rhododendron
and birch. Mosses and ferns cover the
ground in patches. This region
receives heavy snowfall. Dry alpines
are found from about 3000 metres to
about 4900 metres. Dwarf plants
predominate, mainly the black
juniper, the drooping juniper,
honeysuckle, and willow

 All these forests have their
own flora & fauna
 Chief components: abiotic
substances (mineral in soil,
organic matter), primary
producers (trees, shrubs &
ground vegetation),
primary consumers
(herbivores from ants to
elephants) , secondary
consumers (carnivores
snakes – lions), and
decomposers (bacteria &
fungi)
Forests in India
16 types of forests in India (according to
ISRO-National Remote Sensing Centre
there are only 14)
 Forest types of India
 Wet Evergreen forest
 Semi Evergreen forest
 Moist Deciduous forest
 Dry Deciduous forest
 Littoral and Swamp forest /
Mangrove forest
 Dry Evergreen forest
 Thorn forest
 Sub tropical broad leaved forest
 Subtropical Pine forest
 Subtropical Dry Evergreen forest
 Montane Wet Temperate forest
 Montane Moist Temperate forest
 Montane Dry Temperate forest
 Sub Alpine forest
 One quarter of total land area on earth
 Grass is the dominant vegetation
 Not enough rainfall but not a desert
 Typically found in tropical or temperate regions – they can exist in
colder areas too (Siberian Steppe)
 Climatic characteristic: semi-aridity
 Trees are sparse or non-existant (flowers interspersed with grasses
can be found)
 Backbone of agricultural landscape, as tall and mid grass areas
have been used as agricultural areas. Short grass is widely used
for livestock grazing
 Components: Abiotic (nutrients in soil and air), primary
producers (grasses of the family Graminae
( cereal grasses, bamboos), large variety of herbs, shrubs and
scattered trees), Consumers (herbivores (grazing mammalas -cow,
sheep buffalo, rabbit etc – primary cons.), (fox, jackal, snake, frog,
birds etc – secondary cons.) (Hawks – tertiary cons.), Decomposers
(bacteria, moulds & fungi)
Temperate Grasslands
 Growing and Dormant
seasons
 Highly Nutrient soil for
cultivation
 Receives 25 -75 cm rainfall
 Eg: North American
prairies (wildlife: antelope,
rabbits, foxes, snakes and
coyotes)
 Tropical Grasslands
 Warm climate
throughout the year
(both rainy and dry
seasons)
 Receives 50-130 cm of
rain
 Eg: African Savanna
(Wildlife: elephants,
giraffes, lions & Zebras)
Other grasslands are
Flooded grasslands, Polar or
tundra grasslands, montane
grasslands, and xeric or
desert grasslands
 Man-made ecosystem
 Comprises of wheat, maize,
rice, sugarcane etc
 Components: Producers
(crops and weeds),
Consumers (Herbivores -
rats, rabbits, birds, man,
insects – primary
consumers, Secondary
(carnivores - frogs, snakes,
tertiary – hawks/snakes),
decomposers and
transformers (Bacteria &
Fungi like Bacillus,
Aspergillus, Agaricus
Fusarium etc)

Picture: Chinese agricultural

fields
 The deserts occupy about 18% of the land
 with an average rainfall of less than 25 cm
(receives no rain over a long period like Chile
desert goes without rain for 20 yrs).
 Devoid of any form of life
 Not all deserts are hot: tropical and artic exists
 Often windy, sand dunes, rocky, vegetation is
sparse or non-existent
 1. Producers:
 The shrubs, bushes, succulent cacti, grasses and some trees- The
shrubs have extensive branched root system with the stems and
leaves variously modified. Some lower plants such as lichens,
xerophytic mosses and blue green algae are also found there.
 2. Consumers:
 Only a few animals are found in deserts- reptiles and insects
which are able to live under xeric conditions. Mammals are
represented by a few species of nocturnal rodents. Some birds are
present. The camel, called the ship of desert, feeds on tender
shoots of the plants and conserves large quantities of water in its
stomach. The larger animals including carnivores are scarce. The
desert animals have various morphological and physiological
adaptations which enable them to live in such extreme
environment.
 3. Decomposers:
 Due to poor vegetation and less amount of dead organic matter
decomposers are few. They are thermophilic fungi and bacteria.
Desert Flora
Succulent spines with waxy
coating on the surface, which
helps to conserve water (cacti) –
profuse root system with
adventitious branches – very
short growing season – abrupt
flowering after flash rain. Eg:
Palms
Desert Fauna
 Adaptive to conserve water. There
adaptive characteristics are:
 Thick outer body integument to
prevent evaporation of water
 Excretion of solid uric acid
 Highly concentrated urine
 Reduced direct intake of water
 Efficient utilization of internal
metabolic water
 Confined to areas where plant life
exists – borrowing and nocturnal –
rodents, reptiles, insects, scorpions
etc
 Mangroves are the only trees that are capable of thriving in water
 They form the unique intertidal forests at the edge of land and sea
 A wetland ES
 Portuguese: Mangue- tree, English: Grove – trees and shrubs found in shallow,
muddy areas
 Shrubs, vines and ferns which live in waterlogged saline soils which are
subjected to regular flooding
 India has a long coastline of mangrove habitat which are home to more than
12000 species of flora and fauna
 It provide suitable habitat to various species of animals including, endangered
species like Gangetic river dolphin, estuarine crocodile and fishing cat
 Major role in rural and national economy
 Important in creating conditions for sea graa and coral reefs
 Provide food, habitat and nursery for various vertebrates
 Coastal wetlands prevent floods by retaining rainwater for slow release during
the year and absorbing large amount of rainfall, rainoff and snowmelt
 Wetlands filter contaminants
 Natural protection against high tide and tsunami, as it can dissipate the energy
of the wave as it passes through the mangrove. In 2004, Picharam mangrove in
Tamil nadu, acted as a protective belt slowing down the waves and thus saving
the lives of 1700 people living in villages nearby
 Three fourth of the earth’s surface is covered by
aquatic ecosystems
 Very rich and diverse in species composition and
complexity
 There are two types of basic aquatic ES: Lentic and
Lotic
 Lentic ES are standing water bodies such as lakes,
ponds, swamps, marshes and pools
 Lotic ecosystems are flowing water bodies like
rivers, streams, creeks, and springs
 Wetlands can also be a part of aquatic ES
 Only 0.8% of the total surface area of the earth
 Most suitable condition for fishes
 41% of the fishes in earth are found on Freshwater es
 Both lotic and lentic es
 It is a unique habitat because:
 Highly varied inorganic salts, dissolved gases and organic
matter
 The depth & shape of the depression, water movements,
slope of the botto in streams and rivers, temperature,
photoperiodic variations etc are decisive factors
 Components: Producers (freshwater algae, rooted plants in
the shallow regions, phytoplanktons and floatinf
microorganisms with photosynthetic ability in deep
waters), Consumers (zooplankton, arthropods, fishes,
amphibians in the deep waters; frogs, snakes, clams and
various insect population on the margin of the water body),
and decomposers (detritus feeders)
 Largest reservoir of water, plant nutrients and
living organisms
 Average depth of ocean is about 4000ms (max
10000 ms –Mariana Trench in Pacific)
 High salinity of about 3.5 percent salt by weight
(Freshwater only have .03)
 Ocean water lack essential nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorous
Marine habitat can be divided into two:
 1. Pelagic realm free water zone)
 2. Benthic realm (ocean floor)
It can be again subdivided into four regions:
1. Littoral ES (part between shoreline and open sea or
the zone between high tide and low tide)
2. 2. Neritic Es (next to littoral with a depth of 200 m.
continental shelf is below this zone)
3. 3. Pelagic ES (zone of open sea with more that 200 m
depth
4. 4. Benthic ES (ES extending from the edge of
continental shelf to the deepest trenches of the ocean
floor
 The place where sea water meets fresh water from
rivers and streams is referred to as estuaries
 Include sloping river beds, U-shaped basins, river
delta, the shallow inland extension of sea etc.
 Estuaries are known in kerala as Kayal or backwaters
 Salinity fluctuation
 Most productive aquatic ES as they act as nutrient
traps by retaining silt debris and nutrients
 Components: Producers (Seaweeds, marsh grasses
and phytoplanktons), Consumers (oysters, crabs,
shrimps, fishes etc)
 Rich in biodiversity
 Industries like pulp mills release several gases and
small particulate matter in to atmosphere as a
byproduct. This byproduct can then be deposited on
the land or in a water body. The main contaminants
are sulphur dioxide (SO2) & Nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
These gases may cause acid rain and acidification of
sensitive lakes and soils
 Mercury is another dangerous component, which is
primarily emitted from coal based power generating
systems
 the inflow of chemicals, solid waste, discharge of
radioactive elements, industrial and agricultural
effluents, man-made sedimentation, oil spills.
 The majority portion of the marine pollution comes
from the land that contributes to 80 percent of the
marine pollution,
 air pollution also carries pesticides from farms and
dust into the marine waters.
 A new study – based on what researchers called a
mega-expedition to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
in 2015 – suggests there is about 16 times more waste
than previously thought floating there. The mass of
waste spans 617,763 square miles(1.6 million square
km), about three times the size of France.