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POWER ELECTRONICS

Devices, Circuits, and Applications


FOURTH EDITION

6
CHAPTER
CHAPTER

DC–AC Converters

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Learning Outcomes After completing this chapter, students should be able to do the
following:
Describe the switching techniques for dc–ac converters known as inverters and list the types of
inverters.
Explain the operating principal of inverters.
List and determine the performance parameters of inverters.
List the different types of modulation techniques to obtain a near sinusoidal output waveform
and the techniques to eliminate certain harmonics from the output.
Design and analyze inverters.
Evaluate the performances of inverters by using PSpice simulations.
Evaluate the effects of load impedances on the load current.

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Symbols and Their Meanings

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Figure 6.1 Input and output relationship of a dc–ac converter.

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Equations 6.1 and 6.1a Performance Parameters

• The output power is given by

where Vo and Io are the rms load voltage


and load current, θ is the angle of the load
impedance, and R is the load resistance.

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Equation 6.2 Performance Parameters

• The ac input power of the inverter is

where VS and IS are the average input


voltage and input current.

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Equation 6.3 Performance Parameters

• The rms ripple content of the input current


is

where Ii and Is are the rms and average


values of the dc supply current.

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Equations 6.4 and 6.5 Performance Parameters

• The ripple factor of the input current is

• The harmonic factor is defined as

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Equations 6.6 and 6.7 Performance Parameters

• The total harmonic distortion is defined as

• DF is a measure of effectiveness in
reducing unwanted harmonics without
having to specify the values of a second-
order load filter and is defined as

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Equation 6.8 Performance Parameters

• The DF of an individual (or nth) harmonic


component is defined as

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Figure 6.2 Single-phase half-bridge inverter.

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Equations 6.10 and 6.11 Single-phase Half-bridge Inverter

• The instantaneous output voltage νo is

• The rms value of fundamental component


is

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Equation 6.12 Single-phase Half-bridge Inverter

• For an RL load, the instantaneous load


current i0 can be found by dividing the
instantaneous output voltage by the load
impedance Z = R + jnωL.

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Equation 6.13 Single-phase Half-bridge Inverter

• If I01 is the rms fundamental load current,


the fundamental output power (or n = 1)
is

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Figure 6.3 Single-phase full-bridge inverter.

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Equations 6.15 and 6.16 Single-phase Full-bridge Inverter

• The rms output voltage can be found from

• Equation (6.10) can be extended to


express the instantaneous output voltage
in a Fourier series as

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Equations 6.17 and 6.18 Single-phase Full-bridge Inverter

• Eq. (6.16) gives the rms value of


fundamental component as

• Using Eq. (6.12), the instantaneous load


current i0 for an RL load becomes

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Equation 6.19 Single-phase Full-bridge Inverter

• Because the dc supply voltage remains


constant νs(t) = Vs, we get

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Table 6.1 Switch States for a Single-Phase Full-Bridge Voltage-
Source Inverter

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Figure 6.4 Waveforms for Example 6.3.

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Figure 6.5 Three-phase inverter formed by three single-phase inverters.

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Figure 6.6 Three-phase bridge inverter.

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Figure 6.7 Delta- and Υ-connected load.

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Table 6.2 Switch States for Three-Phase Voltage-Source Inverter

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Figure 6.8 Equivalent circuits for Υ-connected resistive load.

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Equations 6.20a, 6.20b, and 6.20c

• The instantaneous line-to-line voltage νab


(for a Υ-connected load) is

• Both νbc and νca can be found from Eq.


(6.20a) by phase shifting νab by 120° and
240°, respectively,

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Equations 6.23 and 6.24

• The rms fundamental line voltage.

• The rms value of line-to-neutral voltages


can be found from the line voltage,

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Figure 6.9 Three-phase inverter with RL load.

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Equations 6.25a, 6.25b, and 6.25c

• The instantaneous phase voltages (for a


Υ-connected load) are

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Equation 6.26

• Using Eq. (6.25a), the line current ia for


an RL load is given by

where θn = tan−1(nωL/R).

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Figure 6.10 Gating signals for 120° conduction.

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Figure 6.11 Equivalent circuits for Υ-connected resistive load.

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Equations 6.28a, 6.28b, and 6.28c Equivalent Circuits

• The line-to-neutral voltages that are


shown in Figure 6.10 can be expressed in
Fourier series as

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Equations 6.29a, 6.29b, and 6.29c Equivalent Circuits

• The instantaneous line-to-line voltages


(for a Υ-connected load) are

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Figure 6.12 Multiple-pulse-width modulation.

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Equations 6.31 and 6.34 Multiple-pulse-width Modulation

• If δ is the width of each pulse, the rms


output voltage can be found from

• The coefficient Bn of Eq. (6.32) can be


found by adding the effects of all pulses,

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Figure 6.13 Harmonic profile of multiple-pulse-width modulation.

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Equations 6.35a, 6.35b, and 6.35c Harmonic profile

• The mth time tm and angle αm of intersection


can be determined from

• Because all widths are the same, we get the


pulse width d (or pulse angle δ) as

where Ts = T/2p.

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Figure 6.14 Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

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Equation 6.36 Sinusoidal pulse-width Modulation

• If δm is the width of mth pulse, Eq. (6.31)


can be extended to find the rms output
voltage by summing the average areas
under each pulse as

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Equation 6.37 Sinusoidal pulse-width Modulation

• Equation (6.34) can also be applied to


determine the Fourier coefficient of output
voltage as

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Figure 6.15 Harmonic profile of sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

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Equations 6.38a, 6.38b, and 6.38c Sinusoidal pulse-width Modulation

• The mth time tm and angle δm of


intersection can be determined from

where tx can be solved from

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Figure 6.16 Peak fundamental output voltage versus modulation index M.

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Figure 6.17 Modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

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Equations 6.42a, 6.42b, and 6.42c Modified Sinusoidal Pulse-width Modulation

• The mth time tm and angle δm of


intersection can be determined from

where tx can be solved from

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Figure 6.18 Harmonic profile of modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

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Figure 6.19 Phase-displacement control.

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Equations 6.45 and 6.46 Phase-displacement Control

• The instantaneous output voltage can be


simplified to

• The rms value of the fundamental output


voltage is

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Figure 6.20 Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation for three-phase inverter.

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Equations 6.50 and 6.51 Sinusoidal PWM for Three-phase Inverter

• The harmonics in the ac output voltage


appear at normalized frequencies fh
centered around mf and its multiples,
specifically, at

• For nearly sinusoidal ac load current, the


harmonics in the dc-link current are at
frequencies given by

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Equation 6.52 Sinusoidal PWM for Three-phase Inverter

• One can write the peak amplitude as

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Figure 6.21 Square-ware operation.

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Equations 6.54 and 6.55 Overmodulation

• The fundamental ac line voltage is given by

• The ac line output voltage contains the


harmonics fn and their amplitudes are
inversely proportional to their harmonic order
n.

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Figure 6.22 Output waveform for 60° PWM.

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Figure 6.23 Output waveform for third-harmonic PWM.

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Equations 6.57, 6.60a, and 6.60b Third-harmonic PWM

• This is shown in Figure 6.24. A rotating


space vector(s) u(t) in complex notation is
then given by

• The coordinate transformation from the a–


b–c-axis to the x–y axis can be written as

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Equation 6.64 Third-harmonic PWM

• Then, using Eq. (6.57), we get the space


vector representation as

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Figure 6.24 Three-phase coordinate vectors and space vector u(t).

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Figure 6.25 The on and off states of the inverter switches. [Ref. 13]

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Equations 6.67 and 6.70 On and Off State

• We can derive all six vectors as

• The normalized peak value of the nth line


voltage vector can be found from

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Equation 6.72 On and Off State

• If the output voltages are purely


sinusoidal, then the performance vector U
becomes

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Figure 6.26 The space vector representation.

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Equations 6.74 and 6.75 Space Vector

• The vectors of three-phase line


modulating signals can be represented by
the complex vector U* = υr = [υ]αβ =
[υrαυrβ]T as given by

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Figure 6.27 Determination of state times.

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Equations 6.76a, 6.76b, and 6.77 Determination of State Times

• We can equate the volt time of the


reference vector to the SVs as

• Equation (6.67) gives the space vectors in


sector 1 as

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Figure 6.28 Pattern of SVM.

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Equations 6.79a, 6.79b, and 6.79c Pattern of SVM

• Solving for T1, T2, and Tz in sector 1 (0 ≤


θ ≤ π/3), we get

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Equation 6.83 Pattern of SVM

• After substituting in Eq. (6.82)

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Table 6.3 Relationship between the Dwell Times and the Space
Vector Angle θ for Sector 1

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Figure 6.29 Three-phase waveforms for space vector modulation (M = 0.8, fsn = 18).

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Equations 6.87a, 6.87b, and 6.87c Waveforms for Space Vector Modulation

• The instantaneous phase voltages can be


found by time averaging of the SVs during
one switching period for sector 1 as given
by

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Figure 6.30 Overmodulation. [Ref. 20, R. Valentine]

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Equations 6.88a, 6.88b, and 6.88c Overmodulation

• The portions of the circle outside the


hexagon are limited by the boundaries of
the hexagon and the corresponding time
states Tn and Tn+1 can be found from [20]

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Table 6.4 Switching Segments for all SVM Sectors

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Figure 6.31 Block diagram for digital implementation of the SVM algorithm.

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Equations 6.89a and 6.89b Digital Implementation of the SVM Algorithm

• Find magnitude Vr and the angle θ of the


reference vector.

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Table 6.5 Summary of Modulation Techniques

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Figure 6.32 Output voltage with two bipolar notches per half-wave.

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Equation 6.94 Bipolar Notches

• Equation (6.92) can be extended to m


notches per quarter-wave:

where α1 < α2 < . . . < αk < π/2.

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Figure 6.33 Unipolar output voltage with two notches per half-cycle.

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Equation 6.96 Unipolar Output Voltage

• Equation (6.95) can be extended to m


notches per quarter-wave as

where α1 < α2 < . . . < αk < π/2.

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Figure 6.34 Output voltage for modified sinusoidal pulse-width modulation.

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Equation 6.97 60-Degree Modulation

• The coefficient Bn is given by

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Figure 6.35 Elimination of harmonics by transformer connection.

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Figure 6.36 Single-phase current source.

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Equations 6.99 and 6.100 Single-phase Current Source

• From Eq. (6.20a), the instantaneous


current for phase a of a Υ-connected load
can be expressed as

• From Eq. (6.25a), the instantaneous


phase current for a delta-connected load
is given by

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Table 6.6 Switch States for a Full-Bridge Single-Phase Current-
Source Inverter (CSI)

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Figure 6.37 Three-phase current source transistor inverter.

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Figure 6.38 Variable dc-link inverter.

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Equation 6.103 Variable Dc-link Inverter

• The output voltage is sinusoidal as given


by

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Figure 6.39 Principle of boost inverter.

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Figure 6.40 Boost inverter consisting of two boost converters. [Ref. 22, R. CaCeres]

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Figure 6.41 Equivalent circuit of converter A.

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Equations 6.104 and 6.105 Equivalent Circuit of Converter

• The average output voltage of converter


A, which operates under the boost mode,
can be found from

• The average output voltage of converter


B, which operates under the buck mode,
can be found from

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Figure 6.42 Equivalent circuits during modes of operation.

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Equation 6.110 Equivalent Circuits

• The inductor current IL that depends on


the load resistance R and the duty cycle k
can be found from

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Figure 6.43 Gain characteristics of the boost inverter.

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Equations 6.106 and 6.109 Gain characteristics

• The dc gain of the boost inverter is given


as

• The ac voltage gain is given as

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Figure 6.44 Buck–boost inverter. [Ref. 23, R. CaCeres]

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Figure 6.45 Output filters.

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Figure 6.46 Single-phase inverter for PSpice simulation.

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Figure 6.47 PSpice plots for Example 6.8.

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