ELECTROMAGNETISMS

PART 2
 Electromagnetic Induction

 The production of an electric current by a

changing magnetic field
 Relative motion between the conductor/coil and the
magnetic field lines.
 The induced current is produced when
1. A conductor cut across the magnetic flux
2. There is a change in magnetic flux linking a coil or
a circuit
 When a magnet is moved into and out of the solenoid,
magnetic flux is being cut by the coil.
 The cutting of magnetic flux by the wire coil induces an e.m.f
in the wire.
 When the solenoid is connected to a closed circuit, the
induced current will flow through the circuit.
 The production of electric current by changing magnetic field
is called electromagnetic induction.
 Current/emf is induced only when there is relative motion
between the magnetic field and the conductor.
 The direction of the induced current and the magnitude of the
induced e.m.f due to the cutting of the magnetic flux can be
determined from Lenz's Law and Faraday's Law.
 There are 2 principal laws of electromagnetic induction:
The Faraday’s law
 The Lenz’s law
Faraday's Law
The magnitude of the induced e.m.f is determined from Faraday's
Law.
 Faraday's Law states that the magnitude of the induced
e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux through a coil or alternatively the
rate of the magnetic flux being cut.
 Therefore, the induced emf can be increased by
 using a stronger magnet
 increase the speed of the relative motion
 increase the number of turns of the coil
 When a straight conductor (or wire) moves and cut a
magnetic field, emf will be induced across the
conductor.
 If the conductor is in a complete circuit, current will
flow in the conductor.
 The direction of the current induced can be
determined by using Fleming's Right Hand Rule
 When a bar magnet is inserted into a solenoid, the
solenoid will cut the magnetic flux of the bar magnet.
This will induce a current and emf in the solenoid.
 The induced current will produce another magnetic
field around it.
 The pole of the magnetic field and direction of the
induced current can be determined by using Lenz's
Law.
 Direct Current Generator

 The direct current generator produces electric

current (or voltage) base on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
Direct Current Generator (DC Motor)
Alternating Current Generator AC Dynamo
 Figure above shows the illustration of a simple direct
current (d.c.) generator.
 You should notice that the simple d.c generator is
almost the same as the d.c. motor except that the
battery in the d.c. motor is removed and replaced by
a resistor.
 The direct current generator produces electric
current (or voltage) base on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
 Figure below shows the change of the induced
voltage when the coil is at different postion.
 Initially the armature is vertical. No cutting of
magnetic flux occurs and hence induced current does
not exist.
 When the armature rotates, the change in flux
increases and the induced current correspondingly
increases in magnitude.
 After rotating by 90°, the armature is in the
horizontal position.
 The change in magnetic flux is maximum and hence
the maximum induced e.m.f is produced.
 Maximum induced current flows through the
galvanometer.
 When the armature continues to rotate, the change
in flux decreases.
 At the 180° position, there is no change in flux hence
no induced current exists.
 The induced current is achieves its maximum value
again when the armature is at 270°.
 After rotating 360°, the armature returns to its
original position.
 The direction of the induced current can be
determined from Fleming's Right-Hand Rule.
 Even though the magnitude of the induced current
or d.g.e is dependent on the orientation of the coil,
the current in the external circuit always flows in one
direction.
 This uni-directional current is known as direct
current.
 Generator can be modified to an a.c generator by
replacing its commutators with two (separate) slip rings.
 The two slip rings rotate in tandem with the armature.
 Carbon brushes connect the armature to the external
circuit.
 The armature is initially at the vertical position. No
magnetic flux is cut and hence no induced current exists.
 When the armature rotates, the change in magnetic flux
increases and the induced current increases until its
maximum value at the horizontal position.
 The direction of the induced current can be determined
from Fleming's Right Hand rule.
 As the armature continues on its rotation, the change in
magnetic flux decreases until at the vertical position, no
induced current exists.
 Subsequently upon reaching the horizontal position
again, the induced current is maximum, but the direction
of the induced current flowing through the external
circuit is reversed.
 The direction of the induced current (which flows
through the external circuit) keeps changing depending
on the orientation of the armature.
 This induced current is also known as alternating
current. The current is positive (+) in one direction and
negative in the other (-).
 The smooth rings play a critical role in the generation of
alternating current.
 Direct Current

 Direct current is a uniform current flowing in one

fixed direction in a circuit
 Direct current (d.c) is usually supplied by acid-based
batteries or dry cells.
 A common example of acid-based (electrolyte)
batteries is the car battery.
 Figure below shows the graph of current supplied by
a dry cell over time.
 Alternating Current

 Alternating current is an electric current in which the

direction of flow of the electrons reverses
periodically
 Alternating current (a.c) is generated from
alternating current generators such as hydroelectric
power generators.
 The electricity supplied to households is alternating
current.
 Household electricity (alternating current) changes
direction 50 times every second. Its magnitude also
changes with time.
 The time taken for one complete cycle is known as
the period, T.
 The frequency f is defined as the number of complete
cycles in 1 second.
 The relationship between the frequency and the
period is:
 f=1/T
 Direct Current Alternating
Current
Characteristics 1. Magnitude of current is constant 1. Current flows in one
2. Current flows in one direction direction for 1st half
only rotation and changing to
3. Its called a steady direct current apposite direction for 2nd
half rotation
2. Its call a sinusoidal
alternating current
Effects on a The bulb lights up The bulb lights up
bulb

Effects on a Current is detected at the very Current is detected

capacitor beginning and then ceased to become
zero afterward.

Effects on No sound produced Sound produced

moving coil
loudspeaker
 Root Mean Square Voltage/Current

 The maximum potential difference supplied by an a.c

source is known as the peak voltage VP.
 The effective potential difference for an a.c is equal
to the potential difference of a alternating current if
both results in the same heating effect.
 The effective potential difference for a.c is known as
the root mean square voltage (r.m.s) of the a.c. and is
given y the following equation:
 Vrms=Vp /√2
 The root-mean-square (r.m.s) value of an alternating
current is the value of the steady direct current
which produces the same power in a resistor as the
mean power produced by the alternating current.
 The r.m.s current is the effective value of the
alternating current.
 The r.m.s. current can be calculated by using the
following equation:
Diagram above shows a graph of potential
difference, V against time, t of an
alternating current. Find the Vr.m.s. of the
power supply.
 The diagram shows the wave form of an a.c. supply.
What is the root mean square value of the current?
 Transformer

 A transformer is a device that is used to raise or lower

down the potential difference of an alternating current.

Function:
 The function of a transformer is to increase or decrease
the potential difference of an alternating current supply.

Structure and Technical Terms

 1. A transformer consist of 3 parts, namely
The primary circuit
 The core
 The secondary Circuit
 Primary Circuit:
The primary circuit is the circuit that connected to the input energy
source. The current, potential difference and coil (winding) in the
primary circuit are called the primary current (Ip), primary
potential difference (Vp) and primary coil respectively.
Core:
The core is the ferromagnetic metal wound by the primary and
secondary coil. The function of the core is to transfer the changing
magnetic flux from the primary coil to the secondary coil.

 Secondary Circuit:
The secondary circuit is the circuit that connected to the output of
the transformer. The current, potential difference and coil (winding)
in the secondary circuit are called the secondary current (Is),
secondary potential difference (Vs) and secondary coil respectively.
 Working Principle of A Transformer

 A transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary

coil wound on a soft iron core.
 When an alternating current flows in the primary coil, a
changing magnetic flux is generated around the primary
coil.
 The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the
secondary coil through the iron core.
 The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil,
hence induces an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
 The magnitude of the output voltage can be controlled
by the ratio of the number of primary coil and secondary
coil.
 Types of Current in A Transformer

 The current in the primary circuit must be

alternating current because alternating current can
produce changing magnetic flux. A changing
magnetic flux is needed to induce e.m.f. in secondary
coil.
 The induced current in secondary is also an
alternating current. The frequency of the alternating
current in secondary coil is same as the frequency of
the primary current.
 The alternating in the secondary circuit can be
converted into direct current by using a pair of diode.
 Symbol of A Transformer

 The figure shows the symbol of a transformer. The 2

lines in between the coil denote the core.
 Types of Transformer

 Types of Transformer
 There are 2 types of transformer, namely
the step up transformer
 the step down transformer
 A step-up transformer is one where the e.m.f. in the
secondary coil is greater than the e.m.f. in the
primary coil. It is used to increases the potential
difference.
 The number of windings in the secondary winding is
greater than the number of windings in the primary
coil.
 The current in the primary coil is greater than the
current in the secondary coil.
 Conversely, a step-down transformer is one where
the e.m.f. in the secondary coil is less than the e.m.f.
in the primary coil. It is used to reduce the potential
difference.
 The number of windings in the primary winding is
greater than the number of windings in the
secondary coil.
 The current in the primary coil is lesser than the
current in the secondary coil.
Calculation of Potential Difference Change
Calculation of Current Change
 Factors That Affect the Efficiency of a
Transformer

 1. The heating effect of current in a coil.

 Power is lost as heat I2R whereby I is the current
flowing through the coil and R is the resistance of the
coil

Methods to increase the efficiency

Use thick copper wires of low resistance. Use coolant
to decrease the temperature of the transformer.
 2. Heating effect of induced eddy currents

In the iron core. When the magnetic field in the iron core
fluctuates, eddy currents are generated in the iron core.

Methods to increase the efficiency

Use a laminated iron core whereby each layer is insulated
with enamel paint to prevent the flow of eddy currents.
The high resistance between layers of the iron core
decrease the prevalence of eddy currents and heat.
 3. Magnetization of the Iron Core.
 The energy used in the magnetization and de-
magnetization of the iron core each time current
changes its direction is known as hysterisis. This
energy is lost as heat which subsequently heats up
the iron core.

Methods to increase the efficiency

Use a soft iron core that is easily magnetized and de-
magnetized.
 4. Flux leakage.
 Some of the induced magnetic flux from the primary coil
is not transmitted to the secondary coil, therefore the
e.m.f in the secondary coil is decreased.
The secondary coil(windings) are intertwined tightly with
the primary coils. The iron core should form a closed
loop.

Methods to increase the efficiency

The secondary coil (windings) is intertwined tightly with
the primary coils. The iron core should form a closed
loop.
 Generation of Electricity

 Renewable energy sources are the energy sources which can

be continuously replaced. Examples of renewable energy are:
Hydro energy
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Geothermal energy
 Biomass
 Tidal energy

Advantages of Using Renewable Energy
1. Clean and do not pollute the environment.
2. Easily obtain.
3. Can be replenished once it has been used.
4. Can prevent energy crisis.
 Sources of Energy Used to Generate
Electricity - Hydroelectric

 Hydroelectric
 The advantages of using hydroelectric as a source of energy to generate
electricity are.
It is a renewable energy.
 Building a dam does not pollute the environment.
 In a lot of country, water can be easily obtained and is free.
 Building a hydroelectric plant does not involve very high technology as
nuclear power plant.

The disadvantages of using hydroelectric as a source of energy are.
Building a dam will cause a large area flooded with water, and hence
seriously destroys the ecosystem nearby.
 The flooded area causes the loss of wild life habitat and agriculture land.
 Dam failure happens will cause a disaster to the lower reaches area of the
river.
 The cost to build a dam is very high.
 Fossil Fuel.

 The advantages of using fossil fuel such as petroleum, natural gas and coal
as a source of energy to generate electricity are.
It is relatively easy to be collected as they are present in large amount in
one place.
 It contains high energy capacity.


The disadvantages of using fossil fuel as a source of energy are.

It releases a lot carbon dioxide when it is burned. Large amount of carbon
dioxide presence in the atmosphere will cause the increase of the
temperature of the atmosphere, known as global warming. Global warming
is the most serious environmental problem that we are facing now.
 Fossil fuels are non-renewable energy.
 Pollute the air. Burning of fossil fuel will release particles and some
hazardous gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide which will
pollute the air.
 Solar power

 The advantages of using solar energy as a source of energy to

generate electricity are.
It is a renewable energy.
 Sunlight is free and can be obtained easily.
 It does not pollute the air.

The disadvantages of using solar energy as a source of energy are.
A large area is needed to install the solar plate.
 The amount of sunlight at non-tropical area depends on the season.
 The energy collected need to be store in a cell so that it can be used
at the time sunlight is not present.
 Its capacity is limited by the capacity of the cell. Normally a cell has
relatively low capacity.
 Nuclear Power

 The advantages of using nuclear energy as a source of energy to

generate electricity are.
The nuclear fuel such as uranium and plutonium has high energy
capacity. Small amount of uranium can produces huge amount of
energy.
 Nuclear energy does not pollute the air.

The disadvantages of using nuclear energy as a source of energy are.
Hazardous radioactive waste is produced during nuclear reaction.
 The radioactive waste will cause pollution in a very large area if
leakage happens in the nuclear power plan.
 The cost to maintain a nuclear plant is very high.
 Building a nuclear plant involving very high technology. Only a few
countries own such technology.
 Biomass

 Biomass is biological material derived from living organisms such as wood and
animal waste.
 As a renewable energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to
produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel.
 Heat energy produced from the burning of biomass can be used to generate
electricity.
 Advantages
 It is renewable energy.
 Using biomass to generate electricity can reduce the disposal of organic waste.
 Liquid biofuels will not pollute the air because they are lead-free and sulphur-free.


 Disadvantages
 Large storage space is required to store the biomass.
 Land utilization can be considerable. Can lead to deforestation.
 Overall process can be expensive
 Wind Power

 The advantages of using wind as a source of energy to

generate electricity are.
It is a renewable energy.
 It does not pollute the environment.
 It is suitable for mountain area because the wind speed
in mountain area is relatively high.

The disadvantages of using wind as a source of energy
are.
A large area is needed to build the windmills.
 The windmills will produce high level of noise.
 The power generated is inconsistent due to the
inconsistent of the wind speed and wind direction.
 Problems Involving Electricity Transmission.
 Power Loss During Transmission.
 The high voltage transmission cable is very
dangerous.
 The cost of the cables are high.
 Charge leakage may happen between cables and
earth.
 Pylons may be struck by lightning.
 Pylons and cables may be struck by light aircraft.
 What is a national Grid Network?
A national Grid Network is a network of cable that connects all the power
stations in a country to transmit electricity to the consumers throughout the
nation.
The advantages of the National Grid Network
Reduces power lost during transmission. The potential difference is increased
before transmission. This can reduce the current and hence reduces the energy lost
during transmission.

Electricity supply is more stable and reliable. This ensures a continuous
supply of electrical energy to the whole country.

Electric current can be distributed to different users according to the
voltage requirement. Transformer is used to step down the voltage to certain
level according to the needs of the consumers.

Maintenance and repair work can be done at anytime. This is because any
power stations can be shut down without affecting users in other areas.