SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

AND PROCEDURES
Lecturer: PROF. MARIA LORINA B. CROBES
Learning Outcomes:
 Explained what sampling means and why it is used in
research.
 Identified and described the different sampling techniques.

 Identified the appropriate sampling techniques for specific

types of study and explained how they are used.

 Explained and demonstrated how each sampling

technique is done.
 One major concern in survey is “who will participate?”.
 For the result to be meaningful, the individual who will take
the survey should be a representative of the population
under investigation.
 To draw any reliable and valid conclusions concerning the
population, it is imperative that the sample “be like” the
population – a representative sample.
 If the sample is a representative of the population, we are
confident that the results found in the sample also holds
true with the population.
SAMPLING
 The process of choosing a representative portion of a
population or some elements in a population that will
represent the entire population.
 It is assumed that the characteristics of the chosen
elements, called sample, reflect the characteristics of the
entire population.

 In contrast, total enumeration or census requires the study

of all elements in the population.
POPULATION
 It refers to the total number of elements (e.g. items,
objects, areas or individuals) to be studied.

POPULATION ELEMENT
 This pertains to an item, an object, an area, or an
individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the
unit of study.
TARGET POPULATION
 This is the population for which representative information
is desired.
SAMPLING POPULATION
 This is the population for which a sample is actually drawn.

SAMPLING FRAME
 The frame is the list of all the elements or sampling unit
(e.g. items, persons) in a population. The sample is drawn
from the sampling frame.
SAMPLE
 It refers to an individual, an element, or a group of
individuals or elements on which information is obtained.
The sample is drawn from a population to which research
results are generalized.

 A sample is a group of subjects selected from a population

(Bluman, 2012). If properly selected, they should possess
the same/similar characteristics as the subjects in the
population.
SAMPLING ERROR
 There is always a sampling error, as a sample is always
part of the population being investigated.
 A sample is used to make inferences and generalizations
about the population.
 It is important to understand that different samples will give
us different outcomes
 Variation between samples cannot be eliminated, but
researchers can aim to eliminate bias.
SAMPLING ERROR
 The difference between a sample result and the true
population result.
 Such an error results from chance sample fluctuations.

NON-SAMPLING ERROR
 Occurs when the sample data are incorrectly collected,
recorded, or analysed (such as by selecting a biased
sample, using a defective measurement instrument, or
copying the data incorrectly).
WHY STUDY A SAMPLE?

There are several advantages of studying a sample rather

than the total population. Studying a sample is generally
cheaper, faster and yields accurate results than conducting total
enumeration (Parel, et. al. 1985; Cooper and Schindler, 2001;
David, 2002).

 It is cheaper. Since a sample is smaller than the

entire population, collection and processing of data,
therefore, costs much less.
WHY STUDY A SAMPLE?

 It is faster. It is definitely quicker to study fewer

individuals or elements than an entire population.

 It is more accurate. Fewer errors are expected in

data collection and processing in a study of a
sample.

 It can yield more comprehensive information

BASIC TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Non-Probability Sampling

2. Probability Sampling
BASIC TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Non-probability Sampling. It is arbitrary (non-random)
and is generally subjective. Data gatherers choose sample
cases, “as they wish” or “whatever they find them”.
 It is judgemental sampling. It does not provide every
member of the population an equal chance of being
selected as part of the sample.
 Moreover, the probability or chance of an element to be
chosen as a sample in unknown.
 One disadvantage of using this sampling technique is the
possibility of bias.
BIAS
 Bias is a systematic error.
For Example:
If your sampling method is to select every fourth
Olympian but for some reason the Olympians are listed
so every fourth one is male, then this is an error in the
system used to select the sample and the sample will be
biased. The sample should be as representative of the
target population as possible so bias needs to be
eliminated.
Non-probability Sampling
 A sampling technique in which the individual members of
the population do not have equal likelihood of being
selected to be a member of the sample.

 not all elements of the population are given a chance of

being included in the sample

 prone to selection bias

1.Convenience Sampling

• Also known as voluntary /haphazard/accidental

• A sampling technique that involves getting the participants
wherever you can find them and typically wherever is
convenient.
• Sample elements are selected because they are available.

• The researcher uses subjects that are convenient.

Use results that
are readily
available.
Example:
The researcher may interview subjects entering at
SM-Bacolod City to determine the nature of their
visit or perhaps what stores they will patronizing.

If the researcher investigates the characteristics of

the population and determines that the sample is
representative, then it can be used.
 Example:
An investigator who wants to interview 25
students about their study habits may stand at
the door of a classroom and interview the first
25 students who enter the room. If better
students tend to enter the classroom earlier
than the slower students, the bias in favor of the
brighter students is introduced.
2.Quota Sampling

• Selecting sample elements non-randomly according to

some fixed quota

• A sampling technique that involves getting the

participants wherever you can find them and typically
wherever is convenient, however, we ensure that the
sample is like the population on certain characteristics.
3.Purposive/Judgmental Sampling
• The researcher selects the sample based on his judgment as
to who best fit the established criteria.
• The sample is chosen according to purpose of the study and
a specific purpose in selecting a sample.
Example:
A researcher wants to know how grandparents feel about their
grandchildren. He may select men and women who are 65 years
old and above who have grandchildren to serve as respondents. If
there are younger grandfathers in the population, they cannot be
included in the study.
Types of Purposive Sampling
Several subtypes of purposive sampling exist:
 Critical Case Sampling: collecting cases that are likely to
give you the most information about the phenomenon you
are studying.

 Expert Sampling: Sampling to include only those with

expertise in a certain area.

 Extreme Case Sampling: this technique focuses on

participants with unique or special characteristics.
Types of Purposive Sampling
Several subtypes of purposive sampling exist:
Homogeneous Sampling: collecting a very specific set of
participants. For example, age 20-24, college educated,
male.

Maximum Variation Sampling: collecting a wide range

of participants with different viewpoints to study a
certain phenomenon. Can uncover common themes.

Total Population Sampling: the entire population, who

share common characteristics, is studied.
Advantages of Purposive Sampling
Each subtype of purposive sampling has their own advantages and
disadvantages. In general, one major advantage of this type of sampling
is that it’s easier to make generalizations about your sample compared
to, say, a random sample where not all participants have the
characteristic you are studying.

Disadvantages of Purposive Sampling

Purposive sampling is sometimes called a judgmental sample, which is a
bit of a misnomer; there’s no intended bias in purposive sampling.
However, due to a lack of random sampling, purposive sampling is
sometimes open to selection bias and error. Even if you tried to
eliminate selection bias to the best of your ability, it can be difficult to
defend your choices for participants. Readers of your study may doubt
if the sample was representative.
4.Snowball Sampling
• Especially useful when you are trying to reach populations
that are inaccessible or hard to find.
Example:
Some people may not want to be found. For example, if a study
was investigating cheating on exams, shoplifting, drug use,
prostitution, or any other “unacceptable” societal behavior,
potential participants would be wary of coming forward because of
possible ramifications.
Example:
However, other study participants would likely know other
people in the same situation as themselves and could inform others
about the benefits of the study and reassure them of confidentiality.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is also known as cold-calling, chain
sampling, chain-referral sampling, and referral sampling.

Advantages:
 It allows for studies to take place where otherwise it might be
impossible to conduct because of a lack of participants.

 Snowball sampling may help you discover characteristics about a

population that you weren’t aware existed.

Disadvantages:
 It us usually impossible to determine the sampling error or make
inferences about populations based on the obtained sample.
Probability Sampling
 A sampling technique in which each member of the
population has an equal likelihood of being selected to be
part of the sample.
 It is based on the concept of random selection, a
procedure that assures that all elements in the population
are given an equal chance of being selected as a sample
unit.
 each element of the population is given a chance of
being included in the sample
 minimizes, if not eliminates, selection bias
1. Simple Random Sampling
• Most basic probability sampling procedure
• Foundation of all probability sampling procedures
• Each element of the population is given an equal chance of
being included in the sample
• A sampling technique in which each member of the population
is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample.
• A random sampling is achieved through random selection - in
which each member of the population is equally likely to be
chosen as part of the sample.
• When to use:
– The population is homogeneous
– A sampling frame is available
Samples are selected by using chance methods or random
numbers.
1. Number each subject in the population.
2. Place the numbered cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly, and
select as many cards as needed.
3. The subjects whose numbers are selected constitute the sample.
Random Sampling.
Each member of the
population has an
equal chance of
being selected.
Computers are often
used to generate
random telephone
numbers.
Random numbers
another method when there is a chance of obtaining a biased
sample.

 To select a random sample of, say 15 subjects out of 85

subjects, it is necessary to number each subject from 01 to
85.
 Then select a starting number by closing your eyes and
placing your finger on a number in the table. In this case
suppose your finger landed on the no. 12 in the second
column.
 Then proceed downward until you have selected 15
different numbers between 01 and 85.
 When you reach the bottom of the column, go to the top of
the next column.
 If you selected a number greater than 85 or the number 00
or a duplicate number, just omit it.
 In our example, we will use the subjects numbered: 12, 27, 75,
62, 57, 13, 31, 06, 16, 49, 46, 71, 53, 41, and 02.
2. Systematic Sampling
•Researchers number each subject of the population and
then selecting every kth subject. K is the sampling interval.
𝑁
• Selecting every kth element of the population, 𝑘=
𝑛

•When to use:
– When the population is homogenous and there is no
suspicion of a trend or pattern in the frame or geographical
layout
– A sampling frame is available
Systematic Sampling. Every kth member is chosen.
Steps:
a. Suppose there were 2000 subjects in the population and a
sample of 50 subjects were needed.
b. Since 2000/50 = 40, k = 40, and every 40th subject would be
selected; however, the first subject (numbered 1 to 40) would
be selected at random (random start).
c. Suppose subject 12 were the first subject selected then the
sample would consist of the subjects whose numbers were
12, 52, 92, etc. until 50 subjects were obtained.
Example. For N=10, Let n=5
Mm May Al Sam Kit Jun Drae Ken Ria JR

Example. For a study on the “Risk Behaviors of Insulin-Dependent Diabetic

Patients Admitted in A Private Hospital in Metro Manila “. Suppose you wish to
draw a sample of 15 insulin-dependent patients from 30 eligible patients. These
30 were identified from the hospital records.
Population: _____________________________________
Sampling Frame: _____________________________________
Sampling Unit: _____________________________________
What are the steps in drawing the sample patients?
3. Stratified Sampling
 Researchers divide the population into groups (called strata) according
to some characteristic that is important to the study, then sampling
from each group (Bluman, 2012). Samples within the strata should be
randomly selected.
 According to David (2002), it is the process of selecting a random
sample from subgroups or strata into which a population has been
subdivided. A population is made up of groups of elements with varied
characteristics, which can possibly affect observations or responses.
The population is stratified into more or less homogeneous subgroups
or strata, before sampling is done. From each subgroup, a sub-sample
is drawn using either simple random sampling or systematic sampling
with a random start.
3. Stratified Sampling
• a sampling technique designed to ensure that subgroups or
strata are fairly represented.
• a sampling technique intended to guarantee that the sample
represents specific subgroups or strata.
• selecting random samples from mutually exclusive
subpopulations, or strata, of the population.
• When to use:
– When the population is heterogeneous but can be
subdivided into homogeneous subgroups or strata
– A sampling frame is available for each stratum
Stratified Sampling. Classify the population into at least two strata,
then draw a sample from each.
3. Stratified Sampling
• Stratify (divide) the population by a common characteristic
(such as age, class, gender, etc.) and take a random sample of
each stratum [often in accordance to their percent of the
population].
• Equal Allocation
• Proportional Allocation
Sex Frequency(f) n=30 Sample (n) Sample (n)
Proportional Allocation Equal Allocation
Male 50 (50/125)*30 12 15
Female 75 (75/125)*30 18 15

Total 125 30 30
4. Cluster Sampling
• Cluster sampling is used when the population is large or when
it involves subjects residing in a large geographic area.
• Another example, if one wanted to do a study involving the
students in the Division of Negros Occidental, it would be
very costly and time-consuming to try to obtain a random
sample of students since they would be spread over a large
area.
• Instead, few schools could be selected at random, and the
students in these schools would be interviewed in a cluster.
4. Cluster Sampling
 Researchers divide the population into groups called clusters
by some means such as geographic area or schools in a
large school district, etc.
• Then the researcher randomly selects some of these clusters
and uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of
the samples.
• Suppose a researcher wishes to survey temporary dwellers in
a large city. If there are 10 barangays in the city, the
researcher can select at random 2 barangays from the 10 and
interview all the residents of these barangays.
4. Cluster Sampling
• a sampling technique in which clusters of participants that
represent the population are identified and included in the
sample.
• focus on selecting clusters of elements rather than individual
elements
When to use:
– when "natural" groupings are evident in a statistical
population
– a sampling frame is not available
Cluster Sampling.
Divide population
areas into sections,
randomly select a
few of those
sections, and then
choose all members
in them.
5.Mutli-stage Random Sampling

• Repeated cluster sampling

• Could also involve a combination of sampling designs

Sample Size Determination
When studying a sample of population, it is important that
the sample size should be large enough:
1.To allow a reliable analysis;
2.To provide for desired levels of accuracy in estimates;
and
3.To enable the researcher to test for the significance of
differences between proportions.
Sample Size Determination
 If the resources are inadequate to obtain a sufficient sample
size, the researcher must obtain more resources or revise
the plans for data analysis (Fisher, et al, 1991)

 Two important considerations in determining the sample size

of a study:
Availability of resources;
The requirements of a proposed plan of analysis.
Formulas
1. https://sciencing.com/slovins-formula-sampling-
techniques-5475547.html

Slovin's Formula
If a sample is taken from a population, a formula must
be used to take into account confidence levels and
margins of error. When taking statistical samples,
sometimes a lot is known about a population, sometimes a
little may be known and sometimes nothing is known at all.
Formulas

 When it is not possible to study an entire population (such as the

population of the Philippines), a smaller sample is taken using a
random sampling technique.
 Slovin's formula allows a researcher to sample the population
with a desired degree of accuracy.

 Slovin's formula gives the researcher an idea of how large the

sample size needs to be to ensure a reasonable accuracy of
results.
When to Use Slovin's Formula
 If a sample is taken from a population, a formula must be used to take
into account confidence levels and margins of error.
 When taking statistical samples, sometimes a lot is known about a
population, sometimes a little may be known and sometimes nothing
is known at all.

 For example, a population may be normally distributed (e.g., for

heights, weights or IQs), there may be a bimodal distribution (as often
happens with class grades in mathematics classes) or there may be
no information about how a population will behave (such as polling
college students to get their opinions about quality of student life). Use
Slovin’s formula when nothing is known about the behavior of a
population.
Slovin's formula is written as:
n=N÷(1+Ne2)
where n = Number of samples,
N = Total population
e = Error tolerance.

 To use the formula, first figure out the error of tolerance. For example,
a confidence level of 95 percent (giving a margin error of 0.05) may be
accurate enough, or a tighter accuracy of a 98 percent confidence level
(a margin of error of 0.02) may be required. Plug the population size
and required margin of error into the formula. The result equals the
number of samples required to evaluate the population.
2. https://www.isixsigma.com/tools-templates/sampling-
data/how-determine-sample-size-determining-sample-size/
3. http://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/find-
sample-size/
Cochran’s Sample Size Formula
The Cochran formula allows you to calculate an ideal sample
size given a desired level of precision, desired confidence level, and
the estimated proportion of the attribute present in the population.

Cochran’s formula is considered especially appropriate in

situations with large populations. A sample of any given size
provides more information about a smaller population than a larger
one, so there’s a ‘correction’ through which the number given by
Cochran’s formula can be reduced if the whole population is
relatively small.
The Cochran formula is:

where:
 e is the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error),
 p is the (estimated) proportion of the population which has the
attribute in question,
 q is 1 – p.
The z-value is found in a Z table.
Remember this!
1. Reducing sampling error is the major goal of any
selection technique.
2. A sample should be big enough to answer the research
question, but not so big that the process of sampling
becomes uneconomical.
3. Estimating sample size � in general, you need a larger
sample to accurately represent the population when:
a. The amount of variability within groups is greater, and
b. The difference between the two groups gets smaller.
Remember this!

4. In general, the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling

error and the better job/results you can do/have.

5. If you are going to use several subgroups in your work

(such as males and females who are both 10 years of age,
and healthy and unhealthy urban residents), be sure your
initial selection of subjects is large enough to account for the
eventual breaking down of subject groups.
Remember this!

6. If you are mailing out surveys or questionnaire, count

on increasing your sample size by 40% to 50% to account
for lost mail and uncooperative subjects.

7. Remember that big is good, but appropriate is

better.� Do not waste your hard-earned money or
valuable time generating samples that are larger than
you need� law of diminishing returns will set in!
Sampling Strategies and their Advantages and Disadvantages
Thank you!