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ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point does permanent
deformation occur? What materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
1
Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch
return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
2
Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared
δ plastic
δ elastic + plastic
F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δ plastic
3
Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ : • Shear stress, τ :
Ft Ft F
Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao
Fs
Ft
F Ft
Ft lb N τ = s F
σ = = 2f or 2
Ao
Ao in m
original area
before loading
∴ Stress has units:
N/m2 or lbf /in2
4
Common States of Stress
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift(photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)
M Fs Ao τ
Ac
Fs
τ =
Ao
M
2R Note: τ = M/AcR here.
5
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:
Ao
F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches
σ= structure member
National
(photo ParkP.M. Anderson)
courtesy
Ao (σ < 0 here).
6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
σz > 0 σ h <0
7
Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ /2
−δ L
ε = δ ε L=
Lo Lo wo
wo
δ L /2
• Shear strain:
θ
∆ γ = ∆ x/y = tan
θ
x
y 90º - θ
Strain is always
90º dimensionless.
Adapted from Fig. 6.1(a) and (c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 8
Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen
Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
gauge
length
Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
9
Linear Elastic Properties
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
• Hooke's Law:
σ =Eε σ F
E
ε
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test
10
Poisson's ratio, ν
• Poisson's ratio, ν :
ε L
εL
ν= −
ε ε
metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40
11
Mechanical Properties
• Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal
12
Other Elastic Properties
τ M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
γ torsion
τ =Gγ test
M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
∆V ∆V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
=∆ V
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν ) 3(1 −2ν )
13
Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE*
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4
0.2 LDPE 14
Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
δ = FL o δ = −ν Fw o α=
L
EA o EA o π r o4 G
F M = moment
δ /2 α = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo
2ro
δ L /2
• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all
contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
15
Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt /3)
• Simple tension test:
Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, σ at larger stress
Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed
ε p
engineering strain, ε
16
Yield Strength, σ y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when ε p = 0.002
tensile stress,σ
σ y = yield strength
σ y
1000
Yield strength, σ y (MPa)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
Al (6061) ag
Hard to measure,
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20
LDPE
Tin (pure) 18
10
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing
19
Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
F = fracture or
σ y
ultimate
engineering
strength
stress
22
Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
1
Ur ≅ σ yε y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
24
Elastic Strain Recovery
σ D
yi
σ yo
2. Unload
Stress
1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.
increasing hardness
26
Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond
• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
27
Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
28
True Stress & Strain
Note: S.A. changes when sample stretched
29
Hardening
• An increase in σ y due to plastic deformation.
σ
large hardening
σy
1
σy small hardening
0
ε
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
σT= Kε T ( ) n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
30
Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on
sample flaws (defects, etc.). Large sample
to sample variability.
• Statistics
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
32
Summary
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σ y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
33