What is computer networking

Definition:-A computer network is two or more computers connected together using a

telecommunication system for the purpose of communicating and sharing resources

Physical connection

LAN card
Cables

Networking devices (Hub, Switch , Router )

LOGICAL CONNECTION

IP-address
Protocol (software)

What’s Network
Types Of Network:-
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
• Peer To Peer Networking
• Server Base Networking
-Host (Sender of Information)
-Guest (Receiver of Information)
 Types Of Network
LAN (Local Area Network)

Network which is include in a single building or room can be defined

as LAN
 Types Of Network
WAN (Wide Area Network)

Network expanding through cities , countries , continents limit

called WAN . which can be connected through phone or modem .
it’s also called intranet
 Types Of Network
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Sector 1 Sector 2

Network expand through a Single building in city limit is called

MAN.
 Types Of Network
Peer To Peer Network

In this network both computers have equal rights to share their

resources. And both acts as server.
 peer-to-peer network
• A pure peer-to-peer network does not have the notion of clients or servers, but only
equal peer nodes that simultaneously function as both "clients" and "servers" to the
other nodes on the network. This model of network arrangement differs from the
client-server model where communication is usually to and from a central server.

What are the advantages of peer-to-peer networking?

• An important goal in peer-to-peer networks is that all clients provide resources,

including bandwidth, storage space, and computing power. Thus, as nodes arrive and
demand on the system increases, the total capacity of the system also increases. This
is not true of a client-server architecture with a fixed set of servers, in which adding
more clients could mean slower data transfer for all users.
• The distributed nature of peer-to-peer networks also increases robustness in case of
failures by replicating data over multiple peers, and -- in pure P2P systems -- by
enabling peers to find the data without relying on a centralized index server. In the latter
case, there is no single point of failure in the system.
 What are the advantages of peer-to-peer
networking?
• When the term peer-to-peer was used to describe the Napster
network, it implied that the peer protocol was important, but, in reality,
the great achievement of Napster was the empowerment of the peers
(i.e., the fringes of the network) in association with a central index,
which made it fast and efficient to locate available content. The peer
protocol was just a common way to achieve this.
Disadvantages of peer to peer?
• They are less secure than client-server networks, especially so
because the files have to shared and no password is required.
• It is more time consuming to maintain the software on individual
computers.
• Peer-to-peer networks are designed for a small number of users.
Network speed and performance starts to deteriorate usually after
more than 10 computers are on the network. This makes it difficult to
grow the network when the need to add more computers on the
network becomes unavoidable.
 Types Of Network
Server Base Network

In this network all computers and other shared resources are

controlled by centralized server.
 Hub (Hybrid Unit Board)
• It works on layer one (Physical)
• It has One Collision domain or one way for sending data.
• It always broadcast.
• It communicates computers of one network.
• It’s differentiated by it’s sticker and it’s port (hub link)
Switch
• It works on layer two (data link)
• It has many collision domain. Each port is one collision domain.
• It broadcasts at first time.
• It communicates all computers of same network.
• It’s speed is better than Hub.
Router
• It works on layer three (Network)
• It communicates different network.
• It has it’s own OS which can be configured by Computer.
• It has four Modes
– User Mode
– Privileged Mode
– Global Mode
– Sub Global Mode.
• It’s best than all.
Repeaters
Repeaters, located within the physical layer of a network, regenerate and
propagate signals from one to another. They do not change any information
being transmitted, and they cannot filter any information. Repeaters help to
extend the distances of networks by boosting weak signals.
Bridges
Bridges are intelligent repeaters. They regenerate
transmitted signals, but unlike repeaters, they can also
determine destinations.

Hubs Hubs connect all computer LAN connections into one

device. They are nothing more than multiport repeaters.
Hubs cannot determine destinations; they merely
transmit to every line attached in a half-duplex mode.

Routers Routers are a step up from bridges. They are able to

route and filter information to different networks. Some
routers can automatically detect problems and redirect
information around the problem area. These are called
"intelligent routers."
Switches
Switches connect all computer LAN connections, the
same as hubs do. The difference is that switches can run
in full-duplex mode and are able to direct and filter
information to and from specific destinations.

WAN
WAN Infrastructure

As with LANs, there are numerous devices associated with data information flo
across a WAN. Together, these devices create the infrastructure of a functiona
WAN. These devices include:
•Router
•ATM Switch
•Modem and CSU/DSU
•Communication Server
•Multiplexer
•X.25/Frame Relay Switches
ATM Switches

ATM Switches provide high-speed transfer

between both LANs and WANs.

Modem (modulator / demodulator)

Modems convert digital and analog signals. At the source, modems convert
digital signals to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication
facilities (public telephone lines). At the destination, modems convert the signal
back to a digital format.
CSU/DSU (Channel Service Unit / Data Service Unit)
CSUs/DSUs are similar to modems, however they send data in digital format
across digital telephone loops. They are usually in a physical box, but they may
come in two separate units: CSUs or DSUs.
Multiplexers

A Multiplexer combines multiple signals for

transmission over a single circuit. This allows
for the transfer of various data simultaneously,
such as video, sound, text, etc.

Communication Servers

Communication Servers are typically dial in/out servers that allow users
to dial in from remote locations and attach to the LAN.

X.25 / Frame Relay Switches

X.25 and Frame Relay Switches connect private data over public data circuits
using digital signal. These units are very similar to ATM switches, but the transfe
rate of data is not comparable.
 OSI Reference Model
• Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model
– Standard model for network communications
– Allows dissimilar networks to communicate
– Defines 7 protocol layers

7 OSI Layers Diagram

Application
6 Presentation Appl
icati
on P
5 Session roto
co

4 Transport Transport Protoco

3 Network

2 Data Link Network Protoco

1 Physical
 Application Protocols = FTP , SMTP , TCP etc
Transport Protocols = TCP , UDP

Network Protocols = IP , IPX

OSI Layers Detail
1. Physical
Defines physical means of sending data over network devices
Interfaces between network medium and devices
Defines optical, electrical and mechanical characteristics

2. Data Link
Defines procedures for operating the communication links
Frames packets
Detects and corrects packets transmit errors

3. Network
Determines how data are transferred between network devices
Routes packets according to unique network device addresses
Provides flow and congestion control to prevent network resource

depletion
4. Transport
OSI Layers Detail
Manages end-to-end message delivery in network
Provides reliable and sequential packet delivery through error
recovery and flow control mechanisms

5. Session
Manages user sessions and dialogues
Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
Reports upper layer errors

6. Presentation
Manages user sessions and dialogues
Controls establishment and termination of logic links between users
Reports upper layer errors

7. Application
Defines interface-to-user processes for communication and data
transfer in network
 OSI Reference Model
Data Flow
CLIENT SERVER

Data travels down the stack

7 Applicatio

Then up the receiving stack

7 Applicatio
n n
6 Presentation 6 Presentation
5 Session 5 Sessio
4 Transport n
4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
2 Data Link 2 Data Link
1 Physical 1 Physical

Through the network

As the data passes through each layer on the client
information about that layer is added to the data.. This
information is stripped off by the corresponding layer on the
server.
 Hybrid Topology
• A mixture of two or more than two
topologies are called hybrid.

Connectivity
 IP Address
 An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique address that
devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a
computer network

 IP versions :-The Internet Protocol has two primary versions in use. Each
version has its own definition of an IP address.
1. Ip version 4
2. Ip version 6
IP Addressing
 An IP address is software address , not a hardware address –the
latter is hard coded on a network interface card (NIC) & used for
finding host on a local network .IP addressing was designed to
allow a host on one network to communicate with a host on a
different network ,regardless of the type of LANs the host are
participating in.
 IP Terminology
 Bit a bit is one digit, either 1 or 0.
 Bytes is 8 bits
 Octet :An octet, made up of 8bits,is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number
 Network address: this is designation used in routing to send packets to
remote network for example 10.0.0.0, 172.168.10.0 & 192.168.10.0
 Broadcast address: the address used by application & host to send
information to all node on a network is call broadcast address.

IP version 4
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4 byte) addresses, which limits the address space
to 4,294,967,296 (232) possible unique addresses. However, many
are reserved for special purposes, such as private networks (~18
million addresses) or multicast addresses (~1 million addresses).
This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as
public Internet addresses, and as the number of addresses
available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be
inevitable in the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the
push towards IPv6, which is currently in the early stages of
deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.
• Example: 192.168.1.1
 Software (protocol)
Two type of protocol
1. TCP (Transmission control protocol)
2. UDP ( user datagram protocol )
Class A
10.0.0.0--------------(network) ip subnet zero
10.0.0.1---------------1st ip
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
TO
10.255.255.254----last ip
10.255.255.255----broadcast
Total ip got in class A:- 16,777,216- 2=16,777,214
Total Net got in class A :-127
Class B
172.16.0.0---------------(ip subnet zero)
172.16.0.1----------------1st ip
172.16.0.2
172.16.0.2
TO
172.16.255.254----------last ip
172.16.255.255 --------Broadcast
Total ip got in Class B :-65536-2=65534
Total Net got in Class B:- 16385
 Class C

• 192.168.10.0 --------(ip subnet zero)

192.168.10.1 ---------1st ip
192.168.10.2
to
192.168.10.254 -----last ip
192.168.10.255 -----Broadcast
Total ip got in Class C:- 256-2=254
Total net got in class C:-2097152
Types of Routing
The different types of routing are:
• Static routing
• Default routing
• Dynamic routing

Static Routing

Routes learned by the router when an administrator manually establishes

the route. The administrator must manually update this static route entry
whenever an internetwork topology change requires an update.
Benefits:
• There is no overhead on the router CPU.
• There is no bandwidth usage between routers
• It adds security
Disadvantage:
•The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how
each router is connected to configure routes correctly.
• If a network is added to internetwork, the administrator has to add route to

it on all routers-by hand

Default Routing
A default route is a special type of static route. A default route is a route
to use for situations when the route from a source to a destination is not
known or when it is unfeasible for the routing table to store sufficient
information about the route.

In the image, Cisco B is configured to forward all frames for which the
destination network is not explicitly listed in its routing table to Cisco A.
Dynamic Routing
Routes dynamically learned by the router after an administrator
configures a routing protocol that helps determine routes. Unlike static
routes, once the network administrator enables dynamic routing, route
knowledge is automatically updated by a routing process whenever new
topology information is received from the internetwork.
 What is Cabling?
• Cable is the medium through which information
usually moves from one network device to another.
There are several types of cable which are
commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a
network will utilize only one type of cable, other
networks will use a variety of cable types. The type
of cable chosen for a network is related to the
network's topology, protocol, and size.
Understanding the characteristics of different types
of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a
network is necessary for the development of a
successful network.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Cable
 Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and
unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular
and is generally the best option for school networks
 The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to
extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires
inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs
and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher
the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot.
The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication
Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and
rated five categories of wire.
 Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for
unshielded twisted pair cabling
is an RJ-45 connector. This is a
plastic connector that looks like
a large telephone-style
connector (See fig. 2). A slot
allows the RJ-45 to be inserted
only one way. RJ stands for
Registered Jack, implying that
the connector follows a
standard borrowed from the
telephone industry. This
standard designates which wire
goes with each pin inside the
connector.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be
susceptible to radio and electrical
frequency interference. Shielded twisted
pair (STP) is suitable for environments
with electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables quite
bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used
on networks using Token Ring topology.
 Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights,
motors, and other computers.
 Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal
interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network
devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick
coaxial and thin coaxial.
 Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the
specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to
the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the
maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable is popular in
school networks, especially linear bus networks.
 Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the
specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to
the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an
extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center
conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer
lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it
does not bend easily and is difficult to install.
 Coaxial Cable Connectors
The most common type of
connector used with coaxial cables is
the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector (See fig. 4). Different
types of adapters are available for
BNC connectors, including a T-
connector, barrel connector, and
terminator. Connectors on the cable
are the weakest points in any
network. To help avoid problems
with your network, always use the
BNC connectors that crimp, rather
than screw, onto the cable.
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective materials It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the
problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that
contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard
for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of
moisture and lighting.
 Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances
than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at
vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to
include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of
fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to
install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable
carrying Ethernet signals
 Facts about fiber optic cables:
 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.
 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
 Fiber Optic Connector

 The most common connector

used with fiber optic cable is
an ST connector. It is barrel  Fiber optic connector
shaped, similar to a BNC
connector. A newer
connector, the SC, is
becoming more popular. It
has a squared face and is
easier to connect in a
confined space.
 Ethernet hub
• An Ethernet hub or concentrator is a device for
connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic
Ethernet devices together, making them act as a
single segment. Hubs work at the physical layer
(layer 1) of the OSI model. Hubs are either active
or passive. Active hubs repeat the signal received
at one port out each of the other ports (but not the
original one). The device is thus a form of multiport
repeater. Ethernet hubs are also responsible for
forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a
collision.
• Hubs also often come with a BNC and/or AUI
connector to allow connection to legacy 10BASE2
or 10BASE5 network segments. The availability of
low-priced Ethernet switches has largely rendered
hubs obsolete but they are still seen in older
installations and more specialist applications.
 Network switch
• A network switch (or just switch) is a
networking device that performs transparent
bridging (connection of multiple
network segments with forwarding based on
MAC addresses) at up to the speed of the
hardware. Common hardware includes
switches, which can connect at 10,100, or
1000 megabits per second, at half or full
duplex. Half duplex means that the device
can only send or receive any given time,
whereas full duplex can send and receive, at
the same time. The use of specially designed
expansion also makes it possible to have
large numbers of connections utilizing
different mediums of networking, including
Ethernet, Fibre Channel,
ATM, 802.11, to name frequently used
technologies.