c
 


 
 

2 Aimed at summarizing significant features of continuous
data (interval or ratio scales)
2 Summarizing a set of data of sample, ³statistic´ can help
us make inference about the population

c
 

 
J
ean
2
edian
3
ode
J
ean
2 Arithmetic average of all observations
2 If observations are; xJ, x2, x3, x4, xn
2 ormula for mean ( x ) = J n x [xJ  x2  x3  x4   xn]
2 It is most useful measure in summarization of continuous data

2
edian
2 The middle value when the data are arranged (arrayed) from the
lowest to the highest
2 50% < median > 50%
2 The median of an even number of observations is taken arbitrarily
as the average of the two middle values
* e g [J5, 8, J3, 8] = [8, 8, J3, J5] = median = (8  J3)2 = J0 5
2 or a series of odd numbers, median is the middle value
* e g [J5, 8, J, J3, 8] = [8, 8, J3, J5, J] = median = J3
2 or group data;
( n2 ± fe ) i

edian = L0 
fc

n = total numbers
L0 = lower limit of median class

edian class = the class in which (n2) lies
fe = summation of frequencies in the classes lower than
the median class
fc = frequency of median class
i = class interval of the median class
2 ses of median
* for any characteristic which has many more extreme
values on one side of the arithmetic mean than the other
* such distribution is called ³skewed distribution´
* example: per family income of a country
* median can avoid the effect of skewed distribution
where mean can¶t

3
ode
2 The most frequent value
2 The point of maximum concentration
2 The peak in the histogram or frequency polygon
2 Can be used for categorical data (nominal, ordinal
scales)
 c
   



2
any different sets of data could have the same
measurement on central tendency and still be
very different
* e g Set (A) = [2, , J0, J0, J4, J8]
Set (B) = [4, 8, J0, J0, J2, J]
* both (A) and (B) =
,
,
= J0

There are three main measures of dispersion;

J ange
2 Standard deviation
3 Coefficient of variation
J


2 The difference between the largest and the
smallest observation
2 ange = [largest (x) ± smallest (x)]
* previous example: ange of (A) = J8 ± 2 = J
ange of (B) = J ± 4 = J2
2 Easy to calculate and only gives some ideas
about the variability (only crude measure)
x 


  


2 Better measure of dispersion or variability
2 It measures how each observation in the data
set differs from the mean ( x )
2 One of the most important statistic as mean
2 (s) for sample
2 (â) for population
2 Xariance (s)2 is the average measure of squared
deviation of observations from mean ( x )
 * 

 = difference between each observation and
mean = (x - x )
* 
  

 = square of difference between
each observation and mean = (x - x )2
* 
  

 = summation of (x - x)2
=  (x - x )2
* previous example:
' Sum of squared deviation of (A) = (2 -J0)2  ( - J0)2
(J0 - J0)2  (J0 - J0)2  (J4 - J0)2  (J8 - J0)2
= 4  J  0  0  J  4 = J
' Sum of squared deviation of (B) = (4 -J0)2  (8 - J0)2
(J0 - J0)2  (J0 - J0)2  (J2 - J0)2  (J - J0)2
= 3  4  0  0  4  3 = -
 *   ( n ± J)

2 Sum of squared deviation ( x - x )2

* variance (s) = =
Degree of freedom ( n ± J)

* previous example:
' n = 5 (both A & B)
' (s)2 of (A) =J0 = 32
5
' (s)2 of (B) = 80 = J
5
' Standard deviation (s) is obtained by taking square root
of variance (s)2

' (s) = U (s)2 =U ( x -x )2

(n±J)
  




2 Express the standard deviation as a percentage of
mean (s)
2 C X = (x) x J00 = ( ? )%

2 seful in comparing the relative variability of different

kinds of characteristics or with different units
2 Example: Data from sample (n);
* Systolic blood pressure (s) = 5 5 mmHg
(x)
= JJ0 mmHg
* Blood sugar level (s) = J0 mg%
(x)
= J00 mg%
' C X (BP) = 5 5 JJ0 x J00 = 5% compare
' C X (Sugar) = J0 J00 x J00 = J0%
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