ANALOGUE TELECOMMUNICATIONS

1
 MAIN TOPICS (Part I)

1) Introduction to Communication Systems

2) Filter Circuits
3) Signal Generation
4) Amplitude Modulation
5) AM Receivers
6) AM Transmitters

2
 MAIN TOPICS (Part II)

7) Single-Sideband Communications Systems

8) Angle Modulation Transmission
9) Angle Modulated Receivers & Systems
10) Introduction To Transmission Lines & Antennas
11) Mobile Telecommunications

3
 Elements of a Communication System

• Communication involves the transfer of information

or intelligence from a source to a recipient via a
channel or medium.
• Basic block diagram of a communication system:

Source Transmitter Receiver Recipient

4
 Brief Description

• Source: analogue or digital

• Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator,
oscillator, power amp., antenna
• Channel: e.g. cable, optical fibre, free space
• Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator,
power amplifier, transducer
• Recipient: e.g. person, speaker, computer

5
 Modulation

• Modulation is the process of impressing information

onto a high-frequency carrier for transmission.
• Reasons for modulation:
– to prevent mutual interference between stations
– to reduce the size of the antenna required
• Types of analogue modulation: AM, FM, and PM
• Types of digital modulation: ASK, FSK, PSK, and
QAM

6
 Frequency Bands

BAND Hz BAND Hz
 ELF 30 - 300  VHF 30M-300M
 AF 300 - 3 k  UHF 300M - 3 G
 VLF 3 k - 30 k  SHF 3 G - 30 G
 LF 30 k - 300 k  EHF 30 G - 300G
 MF 300 k - 3 M
 HF 3 M - 30 M

•Wavelength, λ = c/f

7
 Information and Bandwidth

 Bandwidth required by a modulated signal depends

on the baseband frequency range (or data rate) and
the modulation scheme.
 Hartley’s Law: I = k t B
where I = amount of information; k = system constant; t = time
available; B = channel bandwidth
 Shannon’s Formula: I = B log2 (1+ S/N) in bps
where S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio

8
 Transmission Modes

 Simplex (SX) – one direction only, e.g. TV

 Half Duplex (HDX) – both directions but not at the
same time, e.g. CB radio
 Full Duplex (FDX) – transmit and receive
simultaneously between two stations, e.g. standard
telephone system
 Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX) - transmit and receive
simultaneously but not necessarily just between two
stations, e.g. data communications circuits

9
 Time and Frequency Domains

• Time domain: an oscilloscope displays the amplitude

versus time
• Frequency domain: a spectrum analyzer displays the
amplitude or power versus frequency
• Frequency-domain display provides information on
bandwidth and harmonic components of a signal

10
11
 Non-sinusoidal Waveform

• Any well-behaved periodic waveform can be represented as a

series of sine and/or cosine waves plus (sometimes) a dc offset:
e(t)=Co+Σ An cos nω t + Σ Bn sin nω t (Fourier series)

12
 Effect of Filtering

• Theoretically, a non-sinusoidal signal would require

an infinite bandwidth; but practical considerations
would band-limit the signal.
• Channels with too narrow a bandwidth would remove
a significant number of frequency components, thus
causing distortions in the time-domain.
★ A square-wave has only odd harmonics

13
 Mixers

• A mixer is a nonlinear circuit that combines two

signals in such a way as to produce the sum and
difference of the two input frequencies at the output.
• A square-law mixer is the simplest type of mixer and
is easily approximated by using a diode, or a
transistor (bipolar, JFET, or MOSFET).

14
 Dual-Gate MOSFET Mixer

Good dynamic range and fewer unwanted o/p frequencies.

15
 Balanced Mixers

• A balanced mixer is one in which the input

frequencies do not appear at the output. Ideally, the
only frequencies that are produced are the sum and
difference of the input frequencies.

Circuit symbol:

f1 f1+ f2

f2
16
 Equations for Balanced Mixer

Let the inputs be v1 = sin ω 1t and v2 = sin ω 2 t.

A balanced mixer acts like a multiplier. Thus
its output, vo = Av1v2 = A sin ω 1t sin ω 2t.
Since sin X sin Y = 1/2[cos(X-Y) - cos(X+Y)]
Therefore, vo = A/2[cos(ω 1-ω 2)t-cos(ω 1 + ω 2 ) t].
 The last equation shows that the output of the balanced
mixer consists of the sum and difference of the input
frequencies.

17
 Balanced Ring Diode Mixer

Balanced mixers are also called balanced modulators.

18
 External Noise

• Equipment / Man-made Noise is generated by any

equipment that operates with electricity
• Atmospheric Noise is often caused by lightning
• Space or Extraterrestrial Noise is strongest from the
sun and, at a much lesser degree, from other stars

19
 Internal Noise

• Thermal Noise is produced by the random motion of

electrons in a conductor due to heat. Noise
power, PN = kTB
where T = absolute temperature in oK
k = Boltzmann’s constant, 1.38x10-23 J/oK
B = noise power bandwidth in Hz
Noise voltage,

VN = 4kTBR

20
 Internal Noise (cont’d)

• Shot Noise is due to random variations in current

flow in active devices.
• Partition Noise occurs only in devices where a single
current separates into two or more paths, e.g. bipolar
transistor.
• Excess Noise is believed to be caused by variations
in carrier density in components.
• Transit-Time Noise occurs only at high f.

21
 Noise Spectrum of Electronic Devices

Device
Noise
Transit-Time or
High-Frequency
Excess or Effect Noise
Flicker Noise

Shot and Thermal Noises

f
1 kHz fhc
22
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

• An important measure in communications is the

signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or S/N). It is often
expressed in dB:

S PS VS
(dB) = 10 log = 20 log
N PN VN

In FM receivers, SINAD = (S+N+D)/(N+D)

is usually used instead of SNR.
23
 Noise Figure

• Noise Factor is a figure of merit that indicates how much

a component, or a stage degrades the SNR of a system:
F = (S/N)i / (S/N)o
where (S/N)i = input SNR (not in dB)
and (S/N)o = output SNR (not in dB)
• Noise Figure is the Noise Factor in dB:
NF(dB)=10 log F = (S/N)i (dB) - (S/N)o (dB)

24
Equivalent Noise Temperature and Cascaded Stages

• The equivalent noise temperature is very useful in microwave and

satellite receivers.
Teq = (F - 1)To
where To is a ref. temperature (often 290 oK)
• When two or more stages are cascaded, the total noise factor is:

F2 − 1 F3 − 1
FT = F1 + + + ...
A1 A1 A 2

25
 High-Frequency Effects

• Stray reactances of components (including the traces

on a circuit board) can result in parasitic
oscillations / self resonance and other unexpected
effects in RF circuits.
• Care must be given to the layout of components,
wiring, ground plane, shielding and the use of
bypassing or decoupling circuits.

26
Radio-Frequency Amplifiers

27
 Narrow-band RF Amplifiers

• Many RF amplifiers use resonant circuits to limit their bandwidth.

This is to filter off noise and interference and to increase the
amplifier’s gain.
• The resonant frequency (fo) , bandwidth (B), and quality factor (Q),
of a parallel resonant circuit are:

1 fo RL
fo = ; B= ; Q=
2π LC Q XL
28
 Narrowband Amplifier (cont’d)

• In the CE amplifier, both the input and output sections

are transformer-coupled to reduce the Miller effect.
They are tapped for impedance matching purpose. RC
and C2 decouple the RF from the dc supply.
• The CB amplifier is quite commonly used at RF
because it provides high voltage gain and also avoids
the Miller effect by turning the collector-to-base
junction capacitance into a part of the output tuning
capacitance.

29
 Wideband RF Amplifiers

• Wideband / broadband amplifiers are frequently used

for amplifying baseband or intermediate frequency
(IF) signals.
• The circuits are similar to those for narrowband
amplifiers except no tuning circuits are employed.
• Another method of designing wideband amplifiers is
by stagger-tuning.

30
Stagger-Tuned IF Amplifiers

31
 Amplifier Classes

An amplifier is classified as:

• Class A if it conducts current throughout the full
input cycle (i.e. 360o). It operates linearly but is very
inefficient - about 25%.
• Class B if it conducts for half the input cycle. It is
quite efficient (about 60%) but would create high
distortions unless operated in a push-pull
configuration.

32
Class B Push-Pull RF Amplifier

33
 Class C Amplifier

• Class C amplifier operates for less than half of the

input cycle. It’s efficiency is about 75% because the
active device is biased beyond cutoff.
• It is commonly used in RF circuits where a resonant
circuit must be placed at the output in order to keep
the sine wave going during the non-conducting
portion of the input cycle.

34
Class C Amplifier (cont’d)

35
 Frequency Multipliers

 One of the applications of class C amplifiers is in “frequency

multiplication”. The basic block diagram of a frequency
multiplier:

High
Input Tuning Output
Distortion
fi Filter
Device + N x fi
Circuit
Amplifier

36
 Principle of Frequency Multipliers

• A class C amplifier is used as the high distortion

device. Its output is very rich in harmonics.
• A filter circuit at the output of the class C amplifier is
tuned to the second or higher harmonic of the
fundamental component.
• Tuning to the 2nd harmonic doubles fi ; tuning to the
3rd harmonic triples fi ; etc.

37
Waveforms for Frequency Multipliers

38
 Neutralization

• At very high frequencies, the junction capacitance of

a transistor could introduce sufficient feedback from
output to input to cause unwanted oscillations to
take place in an amplifier.
• Neutralization is used to cancel the oscillations by
feeding back a portion of the output that has the
opposite phase but same amplitude as the unwanted
feedback.

39
Hazeltine Neutralization

40
 Review of Filter Types & Responses

• 4 major types of filters: low-pass, high-pass, band pass, and band-reject

or band-stop
• 0 dB attenuation in the passband (usually)
• 3 dB attenuation at the critical or cutoff frequency, fc (for Butterworth
filter)
• Roll-off at 20 dB/dec (or 6 dB/oct) per pole outside the passband (# of
poles = # of reactive elements). Attenuation at any frequency, f, is:

 f 
atten. ( dB ) at f = log  x atten. ( dB ) at f dec
 fc 

41
 Review of Filters (cont’d)

• Bandwidth of a filter: BW = fcu - fcl

• Phase shift: 45o/pole at fc; 90o/pole at >> fc
• 4 types of filter responses are commonly used:
– Butterworth - maximally flat in passband; highly non-linear phase
response with frequecny
– Bessel - gentle roll-off; linear phase shift with freq.
– Chebyshev - steep initial roll-off with ripples in passband
– Cauer (or elliptic) - steepest roll-off of the four types but has ripples in
the passband and in the stopband

42
 Low-Pass Filter Response

Gain (dB)
BW = fc
0
Vo Ideal
-20 -2
0d

- 60
1 B/
-40 de
c

dB/

-40
0.707

dec

dB
Passband -60

/d e
BW

c
0 fc f fc 10fc 100fc 1000fc f

Basic LPF response LPF with different roll-off rates

43
 High-Pass Filter Response

Gain (dB)
0
Vo
-20 c
1 /de
B

d ec
c
-40 d

e
0

B/d
0.707 -2

dB/
Passband

d
-60

-40

-60
0 fc f 0.01fc 0.1fc fc f
Basic HPF response HPF with different roll-off rates

44
 Band-Pass Filter Response

Vout Centre frequency: fo = f c1 f c 2

1
Quality factor: Q = f o
0.707 BW
Q is an indication of the
BW selectivity of a BPF.
Narrow BPF: Q > 10.
f Wide-band BPF: Q < 10.
fc1 fo fc2
BW = fc2 - fc1 Damping Factor: DF = 1Q

45
 Band-Stop Filter Response

• Also known as band-reject,

Gain (dB) or notch filter.
• Frequencies within a certain
0 BW are rejected.
-3 • Useful for filtering interfering
signals.
Pass
Passband
band

fc1 fo fc2 f

BW

46
 Filter Response Characteristics

Av
Chebyshev

Bessel

Butterworth

47
 Damping Factor

The damping factor (DF)

Frequency of an active filter sets
Vin selective Vout the response characteristic
+
RC circuit _ of the filter.
R1
R1 DF = 2 −
R2
R2 Its value depends on the
order (# of poles) of the
filter. (See Table on next
General diagram of active filter slide for DF values.)

48
Values For Butterworth Response

Order 1st Stage 2nd Stage

Poles DF Poles DF

1 1 optional

2 2 1.414

3 2 1 1 1

4 2 1.848 2 0.765

49
 Active Filters

• Advantages over passive LC filters:

– Op-amp provides gain
– high Zin and low Zout mean good isolation from source or load effects
– less bulky and less expensive than inductors when dealing with
low frequency
– easy to adjust over a wide frequency range without altering
desired response
• Disadvantage: requires dc power supply, and could be
limited by frequency response of op-amp.

50
 Single-pole Active LPF

R 1
Vin Vout fc =
+ 2π RC
C _
R1
R1 Acl = 1 +
R2
R2
Roll-off rate for a single-pole
filter is -20 dB/decade.
Acl is selectable since DF is
optional for single-pole LPF

51
 Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter

CA Selecting RA = RB = R,
and CA = CB = C :
RA RB
Vin Vout 1
+ fc =
CB _ 2π RC
R1 The roll-off rate for a
two-pole filter is
Sallen-Key or VCVS R2 -40 dB/decade.
(voltage-controlled For a Butterworth 2nd-
voltage-source) second- order response, DF = 1.414;
order low-pass filter therefore, R1/R2 = 0.586.

52
 Cascaded Low-Pass Filter

CA1
Roll-off rate: -60 dB/dec
RA1 RB1
RA2
Vin +
CB1 _ + Vout
CA2 _
R1
R3
R2
2 poles 1 pole R4

Third-order (3-pole) configuration

53
 Single-Pole High-Pass Filter

• Roll-off rate, and formulas for

fc , and Acl are similar to those
C
for LPF.
Vin + Vout • Ideally, a HPF passes all
_ frequencies above fc.
R
However, the op-amp has an
R1 upper-frequency limit.

R2

54
 Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter

RA
Again, formulas and
CA CB
roll-off rate are similar
Vin Vout to those for 2nd-order
+
RB _ LPF.
R1 To obtain higher roll-
off rates, HPF filters
R2 can be cascaded.
Basic Sallen-Key
second-order HPF

55
 BPF Using HPF and LPF

CA1
Vin RA2
+
_ + Vout
RA1
CA2 _
R1
Av (dB) R3
R2
R4
0
-3
-2
c

0
/de

HP response
dB
dB

/d

LP response
e
0

c
-2

f
fc1 fo fc2
56
 More On Bandpass Filter

If BW and fo are given, then:

BW 2 BW BW 2 BW
f c1 = + fo −
2
; fc2 = + fo +
2

4 2 4 2
A 2nd order BPF obtained by combining a LPF and a HPF:

BiFET op-amp
has FETs at
input stage and
BJTs at output
stage.

57
 Notes On Cascading HPF & LPF

• Cascading a HPF and a LPF to yield a band-pass filter

can be done as long as fc1 and fc2 are sufficiently
separated. Hence the resulting bandwidth is relatively
wide.
• Note that fc1 is the critical frequency for the HPF and fc2
is for the LPF.
• Another BPF configuration is the multiple-feedback
BPF which has a narrower bandwidth and needing
fewer components

58
 Multiple-Feedback BPF

C1 Making C1 = C2 = C,
R2
C2 1 R1 + R3
R1 fo =
_ 2π C R1 R2 R3
Vin Vout
R3 + Q = fo/BW

Q Q Max. gain:
R1 = ; R2 =
2π f oCAo π f oC R2
R1, C1 - LP section Q Ao =
R3 = 2R1
R2, C2 - HP section 2π f oC (2Q − Ao )
2
Ao < 2Q 2

59
 Broadband Band-Reject Filter

A LPF and a HPF can also be combined to give a broadband

BRF:

2-pole band-reject filter

60
 Narrow-band Band-Reject Filter

Easily obtained by combining the inverting output of a

narrow-band BPF and the original signal:

The equations for R1, R2, R3, C1, and C2 are the same as for BPF.
RI = RF for unity gain and is often chosen to be >> R1.
61
 Multiple-Feedback Band-Stop Filter

C1 The multiple-feedback
R2 BSF is very similar to
R1 C2 its BP counterpart. For
Vin _ Vout frequencies between fc1
and fc2 the op-amp will
+
R3 treat Vin as a pair of
R4 When common-mode signals
C1 = C2 =C thus rejecting them
accordingly.
1
fo =
2π C R1 R2

62
 Filter Response Measurements

• Discrete Point Measurement: Feed a sine wave to the filter input

with a varying frequency but a constant voltage and measure
the output voltage at each frequency point.

• A faster way is to use the swept frequency method:

Sweep Spectrum
Generator Filter analyzer

The sweep generator outputs a sine wave whose frequency

increases linearly between two preset limits.
63
 Signal Generation - Oscillators

• Barkhausen criteria for

sustained oscillations:
Output
① The closed-loop gain, |BAV| =
1. AV
② The loop phase shift = 0o or
some integer multiple of 360o
at the operating frequency.
AV = open-loop gain
B
B = feedback factor/fraction

64
 Basic Wien-Bridge Oscillator

R4
R1
Voltage R1
_ C1
Divider _
R2
+ Vout
C1 R4 + Vout
R2

R3 Lead-lag R3 C2
C2 circuit

Two forms of the same circuit

65
 Notes on Wien-Bridge Oscillator

• At the resonant frequency the lead-lag circuit provides a positive feedback

(purely resistive) with an attenuation of 1/3 when R3=R4=XC1 =XC2 .
• In order to oscillate, the non-inverting amplifier must have a closed-loop
gain of 3, which can be achieved by making R1 = 2R2
• When R3 = R4 = R, and C1 = C2 = C, the resonant frequency is:

1
fr =
2π RC

66
 Phase-Shift Oscillator

Rf
Rf
_ C1 C2 C3 Acl = = 29
Vout R3
+ Choosing
R1 R2 R3 R1 = R2 = R3 = R,
C1 = C2 = C3 = C,
the resonant
frequency is:
Each RC section provides 60o of
phase shift. Total attenuation of 1
fr =
the three-section RC feedback, 2π 6 RC
B = 1/29.
67
 Hartley Oscillators

L1 + L2 1 L2
B= fo = ; LT = L1 + L2 B=
L1 2π LT C1 L1
68
 Colpitts Oscillator

C1 1 C1C2
B= ; fo = ; CT =
C2 2π LC T C1 + C2
69
 Clapp Oscillator

C2 1
B= ; fo =
C 2 + C3 2π LCT
1
CT =
1 1 1
+ +
C 2 C3 C 4

The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts circuit. C4 is

added in series with L in the tank circuit. C2 and C3 are chosen
large enough to “swamp” out the transistor’s junction capacitances
for greater stability. C4 is often chosen to be << either C2 or C3,
thus making C4 the frequency determining element, since CT = C4.
70
 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator

• VCOs are widely used in electronic circuits for AFC, PLL,

frequency tuning, etc.
• The basic principle is to vary the capacitance of a varactor
diode in a resonant circuit by applying a reverse-biased voltage
across the diode whose capacitance is approximately:

Co
CV =
1+ 2Vb

71
72
 Crystals

• For high frequency stability in oscillators, a crystal

(such as quartz) has to be used.
• Quartz is a piezoelectric material: deforming it
mechanically causes the crystal to generate a
voltage, and applying a voltage to the crystal causes
it to deform.
• Externally, the crystal behaves like an electrical
resonant circuit.

73
Packaging, symbol, and characteristic of crystals

74
 Crystal-Controlled Oscillators

Pierce Colpitts
75
 IC Waveform Generation

• There are a number of LIC waveform generators from

EXAR:
– XR2206 monolithic function generator IC
– XR2207 monolithic VCO IC
– XR2209 monolithic VCO IC
– XR8038A precision waveform generator IC
• Most of these ICs have sine, square, or triangle wave
output. They can also provide AM, FM, or FSK
waveforms.

76
 Phase-Locked Loop

• The PLL is the basis of practically all modern

frequency synthesizer design.
• The block diagram of a simple PLL:

fr Vp fo
Phase Loop
LPF VCO
Detector Amplifier

•Examples of a PLL I.C.: XR215, LM565, and CD4046

77
 Operation of PLL

① Initially, the PLL is unlocked, i.e.,the VCO is at the free-

running frequency, fo.
② Since fo is probably not the same as the reference
frequency, fr , the phase detector will generate an
error/control voltage, Vp.
③ Vp is filtered, amplified, and applied to the VCO to change
its frequency so that fo = fr. The PLL will then remain in
phase lock.

78
 PLL Frequency Specifications

There is a limit on how far apart the free-running

VCO frequency and the reference frequency can be
for lock to be acquired or maintained.
Lock Range
Capture Range

Free-Running
Frequency

fLL fLC fo fHC fHL f

79
 Basic PLL Frequency Synthesizer

fr Phase
comparator LPF VCO fout = Nfr

N
fc = fout /N

For output frequencies in the VHF range and higher,

a prescaler is required. The prescaler is a fixed divider
placed ahead of the programmable divide by N counter.

80
 Frequency Synthesizer Using Prescaling

fr Phase fout
comparator LPF VCO
=(NP+M)fr
Prescaler
N
P or (P+1)

M
2-modulus prescaler divides by P+1 when M counter is non zero;
it divides by P when M counter reaches zero. N counter counts
down (N-M) times. E.g. of I.C. prescaler: LMX5080 for UHF
operation.
81
 AM Waveform

AM signal:
ec = Ec sin ω ct es = (Ec + em) sin ω ct
em = Em sin ω mt
82
 Modulation Index

• The amount of amplitude modulation in a signal is

given by its modulation index:

Em Emax − Emin
m= or
Ec Emax + Emin
where, Emax = Ec + Em; Emin = Ec - Em (all pk values)
When Em = Ec , m =1 or 100% modulation.
Over-modulation, i.e. Em>Ec , should be avoided
because it will create distortions and splatter.
83
 Effects of Modulation Index

m=1 m>1
In a practical AM system, it usually contains many
frequency components. When this is the case,
mT = m12 + m22 + ... + mn2
84
 AM in Frequency Domain

• The expression for the AM signal:

es = (Ec + em) sin ω ct
can be expanded to:
es = Ec sin ω ct + ½ mEc[cos (ω c-ω m)t-cos (ω c+ω m)t]
• The expanded expression shows that the AM signal
consists of the original carrier, a lower side frequency, flsf
= fc - fm, and an upper side frequency, fusf = fc + fm.

85
 AM Spectrum

Ec

mEc/2 mEc/2

fm fm
f
flsf fc fusf

fusf = fc + fm ; flsf = fc - fm ; Esf = mEc/2

Bandwidth, B = 2fm
86
 AM Power

• Total average (i.e. rms) power of the AM signal is: PT = Pc +

2Psf , where
Pc = carrier power; and Psf = side-frequency power
• If the signal is across a load resistor, R, then: Pc = Ec2/(2R);
and Psf = m2Pc/4. So,

m2
PT = Pc (1 + )
2
87
 AM Current

• The modulation index for an AM station can be

measured by using an RF ammeter and the following
equation:

m2
I = Io 1+
2
where I is the current with modulation and
Io is the current without modulation.

88
 Complex AM Waveforms

• For complex AM signals with many frequency

components, all the formulas encountered before
remain the same, except that m is replaced by mT. For
example:

2 2
mT mT
PT = PC (1 + ); I = I o 1 +
2 2

89
Block Diagram of AM TX

90
 Transmitter Stages

• Crystal oscillator generates a very stable sinewave

carrier. Where variable frequency operation is
required, a frequency synthesizer is used.
• Buffer isolates the crystal oscillator from any load
changes in the modulator stage.
• Frequency multiplier is required only if HF or higher
frequencies is required.

91
 Transmitter Stages (cont’d)

• RF voltage amplifier boosts the voltage level of the

carrier. It could double as a modulator if low-level
modulation is used.
• RF driver supplies input power to later RF stages.
• RF Power amplifier is where modulation is applied for
most high power AM TX. This is known as high-level
modulation.

92
 Transmitter Stages (cont’d)

• High-level modulation is efficient since all previous

RF stages can be operated class C.
• Microphone is where the modulating signal is being
applied.
• AF amplifier boosts the weak input modulating
signal.
• AF driver and power amplifier would not be required
for low-level modulation.

93
AM Modulator Circuits

94
 Impedance Matching Networks

• Impedance matching networks at the output of RF

circuits are necessary for efficient transfer of power.
At the same time, they serve as low-pass filters.

Pi network T network
95
 Trapezoidal Pattern

• Instead of using the envelope display to look at AM

signals, an alternative is to use the trapezoidal
pattern display. This is obtained by connecting the
modulating signal to the x input of the ‘scope and the
modulated AM signal to the y input.
• Any distortion, overmodulation, or non-linearity is
easier to observe with this method.

96
 Trapezoidal Pattern (cont’d)

m<1 m=1 m>1

Improper
Vmax − Vmin -Vp>+Vp
m= phase
Vmax + Vmin
97
 AM Receivers

• Basic requirements for receivers:

➊ ability to tune to a specific signal
➋ amplify the signal that is picked up
➌ extract the information by demodulation
➍ amplify the demodulated signal
✎ Two important receiver specifications:
sensitivity and selectivity

98
 Tuned-Radio-Frequency (TRF) Receiver

• The TRF receiver is the simplest receiver that meets

all the basic requirements.

99
 Drawbacks of TRF Receivers

➀ Difficulty in tuning all the stages to exactly the same

frequency simultaneously.
➁ Very high Q for the tuning coils are required for good
selectivity  BW=fo/Q.
➂ Selectivity is not constant for a wide range of
frequencies due to skin effect which causes the BW to
vary with fo.

100
 Superheterodyne Receiver

Block diagram of basic superhet receiver:

101
 Antenna and Front End

• The antenna consists of an inductor in the form of a

large number of turns of wire around a ferrite rod.
The inductance forms part of the input tuning circuit.
• Low-cost receivers sometimes omit the RF amplifier.
• Main advantages of having RF amplifier: improves
sensitivity and image frequency rejection.

102
 Mixer and Local Oscillator

• The mixer and LO frequency convert the input frequency,

fc, to a fixed fIF :

High-side injection: fLO = fc + fIF

103
 Autodyne Converter

• Sometimes called a self-excited mixer, the autodyne converter

combines the mixer and LO into a single circuit:

104
IF Amplifier, Detector, & AGC

105
 IF Amplifier and AGC

• Most receivers have two or more IF stages to provide

the bulk of their gain (i.e. sensitivity) and their
selectivity.
• Automatic gain control (AGC) is obtained from the
detector stage to adjusts the gain of the IF (and
sometimes the RF) stages inversely to the input
signal level. This enables the receiver to cope with
large variations in input signal.

106
Diode Detector Waveforms

107
 Diagonal Clipping Distortion

Diagonal clipping distortion is more pronounced at

high modulation index or high modulation frequency.
108
 Sensitivity and Selectivity

• Sensitivity is expressed as the minimum input signal

required to produce a specified output level for a
given (S+N)/N ratio.
• Selectivity is the ability of the receiver to reject
unwanted or interfering signals. It may be defined by
the shape factor of the IF filter or by the amount of
adjacent channel rejection.

109
 Shape Factor

B−60 dB
SF =
B−6 dB
110
 Image Frequency

• One of the problems with the superhet receiver is that

an image frequency signal could interfere with the
reception of the desired signal. The image frequency
is given by: fimage = fsig + 2fIF
where fsig = desired signal.
• An image signal must be rejected by tuning circuits
prior to mixing.

111
 Image-Frequency Rejection Ratio

• For a tuned circuit with a quality factor of Q, its

image-frequency rejection ratio is:

IFRR = 1 + Q x 2 2
where,
f image f sig
x= −
f sig f image
In dB, IFRR(dB) = 20 log IFRR
112
 IF Transformers

• The transformers used in the IF stages can be either

single-tuned or double-tuned.

Single-tuned Double-tuned

113
 Loose and Tight Couplings

• For single-tuned transformers, tighter coupling

means more gain but broader bandwidth:

114
 Under, Over, & Critical Coupling

• Double-tuned transformers can be over, under,

critically, or optimally coupled:

115
 Coupling Factors

• Critical coupling factor kc is given by:

1
kc =
Q p Qs
where Qp, Qs = prim. & sec. Q, respectively.
✎IF transformers often use the optimum coupling
factor, kopt = 1.5kc , to obtain a steep skirt and
flat passband. The bandwidth for a double-tuned
IF amplifier with k = kopt is given by B = kfo.
✎Overcoupling means k>kc; undercoupling, k< kc
116
 Piezoelectric Filters

• For narrow bandwidth (e.g. several kHz), excellent

shape factor and stability, a crystal lattice is used as
bandpass filter.
• Ceramic filters, because of their lower Q, are useful
for wideband signals (e.g. FM broadcast).
• Surface-acoustic-wave (SAW) filters are ideal for high
frequency usage requiring a carefully shaped
response.

117
 Suppressed-Carrier AM Systems

• Full-carrier AM is simple but not efficient in terms of

transmitted power, bandwidth, and SNR.
• Using single-sideband suppressed-carrier (SSBSC or
SSB) signals, since Psf = m2Pc/4, and Pt=Pc(1+m2/2 ),
then at m=1, Pt= 6 Psf .
• SSB also has a bandwidth reduction of half, which in
turn reduces noise by half.

118
 Generating SSB - Filtering Method

• The simplest method of generating an SSB signal is to

generate a double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC)
signal first and then removing one of the sidebands.

Balanced
Modulator DSB-SC USB
BPF or
AF
Input Carrier LSB
Oscillator 119
 Waveforms for Balanced Modulator

V2, fm Vo

V1, fc

f
fc-fm fc+fm
120
 Mathematical Analysis of Balanced Modulator

• V1 = A1sin ω ct; V2 = A2sin ω mt

• Vo = V1V2 = A1A2sin ω ct sin ω mt
= ½A1A2{cos(ω c- ω m)t – cos(ω c+ ω m)t}
• The equation above shows that the output of the balanced
modulator consists of a lower side-frequency (ω c - ω m)
and an upper side-frequency (ω c+ ω m)

121
LIC Balanced Modulator 1496

122
 Filter for SSB

• Filters with high Q are needed for suppressing the

unwanted sideband.

fa = fc - f2
fb = fc - f1
fd = fc + f1
fe = fc + f2

f c anti log( X dB / 20) where X = attenuation of

Q=
4∆f sideband, and f = fd - fb
123
Typical SSB TX using Filter Method

124
SSB Waveform

125
 Generating SSB - Phasing Method

• This method is based on the fact that the lsf and the
usf are given by the equations:
cos {(ω c - ω m)t} = ½(cos ω ct cos ω mt + sin ω ct sin ω mt)
cos {(ω c + ω m)t} = ½(cos ω ct cos ω mt - sin ω ct sin ω mt)
• The RHS of the 1st equation is just the sum of two
products: the product of the carrier and the
modulating signal, and the product of the same two
signals that have been phase shifted by 90o.
• The 2nd equation is similar except for the (-) sign.

126
 Diagram for Phasing Method

Modulating Balanced Modulator 1

signal
Carrier
Em cos ω mt
oscillator Ec cos ω ct

+ SSB
90o phase 90o phase output
shifter shifter

Balanced Modulator 2
127
 Phasing vs Filtering Method

Advantages of phasing method :

➀ No high Q filters are required.
➁ Therefore, lower fm can be used.
➂ SSB at any carrier frequency can be generated in a
single step.
Disadvantage:
Difficult to achieve accurate 90o phase shift across the
whole audio range.

128
 Peak Envelope Power

• SSB transmitters are usually rated by the peak

envelope power (PEP) rather than the carrier power.
With voice modulation, the PEP is about 3 to 4 times
the average or rms power.

2
Vp
PEP =
2 RL
where Vp = peak signal voltage
and RL = load resistance
129
Non-coherent SSB BFO RX

130
 Coherent SSB BFO Receiver

RF SSBRC IF SSBRC

RF amplifier IF amp. & IF Demod.

and RF mixer bandpass
RF mixer info
preselector filter
input
signal RF LO

Carrier recovery BFO

and frequency
synthesizer

131
 Notes On SSB Receivers

• The input SSB signal is first mixed with the LO signal

(low-side injection is used here).
• The filter removes the sum frequency components
and the IF signal is amplified.
• Mixing the IF signal with a reinserted carrier from a
beat frequency oscillator (BFO) and low-pass filtering
recovers the audio information.

132
 SSB Receivers (cont’d)

• The product detector is often just a balanced

modulator operated in reverse.
• Frequency accuracy and stability of the BFO is
critical. An error of a little more than 100 Hz could
render the received signal unintelligible.
• In coherent or synchronous detection, a pilot carrier
is transmitted with the SSB signal to synchronize the
RF local oscillator and BFO.

133
 Angle Modulation

 Angle modulation includes both frequency and

phase modulation.
 FM is used for: radio broadcasting, sound signal in
TV, two-way fixed and mobile radio systems, cellular
telephone systems, and satellite communications.
 PM is used extensively in data communications and
for indirect FM.

134
 Comparison of FM or PM with AM

Advantages over AM:

1) better SNR, and more resistant to noise
2) efficient - class C amplifier can be used, and less
power is required to angle modulate
3) capture effect reduces mutual interference
Disadvantages:
1) much wider bandwidth is required
2) slightly more complex circuitry is needed

135
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Carrier

Modulating
signal

FSK
signal

136
 FSK (cont’d)

• The frequency of the FSK signal changes abruptly

from one that is higher than that of the carrier to one
that is lower.
• Note that the amplitude of the FSK signal remains
constant.
• FSK can be used for transmission of digital data (1’s
and 0’s) with slow speed modems.

137
 Frequency Modulation

Carrier

Modulating
Signal

FM
signal

138
 Frequency Modulation (cont’d)

• Note the continuous change in frequency of the FM

wave when the modulating signal is a sine wave.
• In particular, the frequency of the FM wave is
maximum when the modulating signal is at its
positive peak and is minimum when the modulating
signal is at its negative peak.

139
 Frequency Deviation

• The amount by which the frequency of the FM signal

varies with respect to its resting value (fc) is known as
frequency deviation: ∆ f = kf em, where kf is a system
constant, and em is the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal amplitude.
• Thus the frequency of the FM signal is:
fs (t) = fc + ∆ f = fc + kf em(t)

140
 Maximum or Peak Frequency Deviation

• If the modulating signal is a sine wave, i.e., em(t) = Emsin

ω mt, then fs = fc + kfEmsin ω mt.
• The peak or maximum frequency deviation:
δ = kf Em
• The modulation index of an FM signal is:
m f = δ / fm
• Note that mf can be greater than 1.

141
 Relationship between FM and PM

• For PM, phase deviation, ∆ φ = kpem, and the peak phase

deviation, φ max = mp = mf.
• Since frequency (in rad/s) is given by:

dθ (t )
ω (t ) = or θ (t ) = ∫ ω (t )dt
dt
the above equations suggest that FM can be
obtained by first integrating the modulating
signal, then applying it to a phase modulator.
142
 Equation for FM Signal

• If ec = Ec sin ω ct, and em = Em sin ω mt, then the equation

for the FM signal is:
es = Ec sin (ω ct + mf sin ω mt)
• This signal can be expressed as a series of sinusoids: es
= Ec{Jo(mf) sin ω ct
- J1(mf)[sin (ω c - ω m)t - sin (ω c + ω m)t]
+ J2(mf)[sin (ω c - 2ω m)t + sin (ω c + 2ω m)t]
- J3(mf)[sin (ω c - 3ω m)t + sin (ω c + 3ω m)t]
+ … .}

143
 Bessel Functions

• The J’s in the equation are known as Bessel

functions of the first kind:
mf Jo J1 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 . . .
0 1
0.5 .94 .24 .03
1 .77 .44 .11 .02
2.4 0.0 .52 .43 .20 .06 .02
5.5 0.0 -.34 -.12 .26 .40 .32 .19 . . .

144
 Notes on Bessel Functions

• Theoretically, there is an infinite number of side

frequencies for any mf other than 0.
• However, only significant amplitudes, i.e. those ≥ |0.01|
are included in the table.
• Bessel-zero or carrier-null points occur when mf = 2.4,
5.5, 8.65, etc. These points are useful for determining
the deviation and the value of kf of an FM modulator
system.

145
Graph of Bessel Functions

146
 FM Side-Bands

• Each (J) value in the table

gives rise to a pair of side-
frequencies.
• The higher the value of mf,
the more pairs of significant
side- frequencies will be
generated.

147
 Power and Bandwidth of FM Signal

• Regardless of mf , the total power of an FM signal

remains constant because its amplitude is
constant.
• The required BW of an FM signal is:
BW = 2 x n x fm ,where n is the number of pairs of side-
frequencies.
• If mf > 6, a good estimate of the BW is given by Carson’s
rule: BW = 2(δ + fm(max) )

148
 Narrowband & Wideband FM

• FM systems with a bandwidth < 15 kHz, are considered

to be NBFM. A more restricted definition is that their
mf < 0.5. These systems are used for voice
communication.
• Other FM systems, such as FM broadcasting and
satellite TV, with wider BW and/or higher mf are called
WBFM.

149
 Pre-emphasis

• Most common analog signals have high frequency

components that are relatively low in amplitude than
low frequency ones. Ambient electrical noise is
uniformly distributed. Therefore, the SNR for high
frequency components is lower.
• To correct the problem, em is pre-emphasized before
frequency modulating ec.

150
 Pre-emphasis circuit

• In FM broadcasting, the high

frequency components are
boosted by passing the
modulating signal through a
HPF with a 75 µ s time
constant before modulation.
 τ = R1C = 75 µ s.

151
 De-emphasis Circuit

• At the FM receiver, the signal

after demodulation must be
de-emphasized by a filter
with similar characteristics
as the pre-emphasis filter to
restore the relative
amplitudes of the modulating
signal.

152
 FM Stereo Broadcasting: Baseband Spectra

• To maintain compatibility with monaural system, FM

stereo uses a form of FDM or frequency-division
multiplexing to combine the left and right channel
information:

19 kHz Pilot
Carrier SCA
L+R (optional)
(mono) L-R L-R
7 kHz
.05 15 23 38 53 60 67
4
153
 FM Stereo Broadcasting

• To enable the L and R channels to be reproduced at

the receiver, the L-R and L+R signals are required.
These are sent as a DSBSC AM signal with a
suppressed subcarrier at 38 kHz.
• The purpose of the 19 kHz pilot is for proper
detection of the DSBSC AM signal.
• The optional Subsidiary Carrier Authorization (SCA)
signal is normally used for services such as
background music for stores and offices.

154
 Block Diagram of FM Transmitter

FM Frequency
Modulator Multiplier(s) Antenna

Buffer Driver Power

Amp
Pre-emphasis

Audio

155
 Direct-FM Modulator

• A simple method of generating FM is to use a reactance

modulator where a varactor is put in the frequency determining
circuit.

156
 Crosby AFC System

• An LC oscillator operated as a VCO with automatic

frequency control is known as the Crosby system.

157
 Phase-Locked Loop FM Generators

• The PLL system is more stable than the Crosby system and can
produce wide-band FM without using frequency multipliers.

158
 Indirect-FM Modulators

• Recall earlier that FM and PM were shown to be

closely related. In fact, FM can be produced using a
phase modulator if the modulating signal is passed
through a suitable LPF (i.e. an integrator) before it
reaches the modulator.
• One reason for using indirect FM is that it’s easier to
change the phase than the frequency of a crystal
oscillator. However, the phase shift achievable is
small, and frequency multipliers will be needed.

159
Example of Indirect FM Generator

Armstrong
Modulator

160
Block Diagram of FM Receiver

161
 FM Receivers

• FM receivers, like AM receivers, utilize the

superheterodyne principle, but they operate at much
higher frequencies (88 - 108 MHz).
• A limiter is often used to ensure the received signal
is constant in amplitude before it enters the
discriminator or detector. The limiter operates like a
class C amplifier when the input exceeds a threshold
point. In modern receivers, the limiting function is
built into the FM IF integrated circuit.

162
 FM Demodulators

• The FM demodulators must convert frequency

variations of the input signal into amplitude
variations at the output.
• The Foster-Seeley discriminator and its variant, the
ratio detector are commonly found in older receivers.
They are based on the principle of slope detection
using resonant circuits.

163
S-curve Characteristics of FM Detectors

vo

Em

δ
fi
fIF
δ

164
 PLL FM Detector

• PLL and quadrature detectors are commonly found in

modern FM receivers.

Phase
Detector
FM IF Demodulated
Signal φ LPF output

VCO

165
 Quadrature Detector

• Both the quadrature and the PLL detector are

conveniently found as IC packages.

166
 Types of Transmission Lines

• Differential or balanced lines (where neither

conductor is grounded): e.g. twin lead, twisted-cable
pair, and shielded-cable pair.
• Single-ended or unbalanced lines (where one
conductor is grounded): e.g. concentric or coaxial
cable.
• Transmission lines for microwave use: e.g.
striplines, microstrips, and waveguides.

167
 Transmission Line Equivalent Circuit

R L R L L L

Zo Zo
C G C G C C

“Lossy” Line Lossless Line

R + jωL L
Zo = Zo =
G + jωC C

168
 Notes on Transmission Line

• Characteristics of a line is determined by its primary

electrical constants or distributed parameters: R (Ω /m),
L (H/m), C (F/m), and G (S/m).
• Characteristic impedance, Zo, is defined as the input
impedance of an infinite line or that of a finite line
terminated with a load impedance, ZL = Zo.

169
 Formulas for Some Lines

For parallel two-wire line:

µ 2D π ε 120 2 D
D L = ln ; C= ; Zo = ln
π d ln
2D εr d
d
d
µ = µ oµ r; ε = ε oε r; µ o = 4π x10-7 H/m; ε o = 8.854 pF/

For co-axial cable:

D
µ D 2π ε 60 D
L= ln ; C = ; Zo = ln
2π d ln
D εr d
d
d
170
 Transmission-Line Wave Propagation

Electromagnetic waves travel at < c in a transmission

line because of the dielectric separating the conductors.
The velocity of propagation is given by:
1 1 c
v= = = m/s
LC µ ε εr

Velocity factor, VF, is defined as: VF = v = 1

c εr

171
 Propagation Constant

• Propagation constant, γ , determines the variation of V

or I with distance along the line: V = Vse-x γ ; I = Ise-x γ ,
where VS, and IS are the voltage and current at the
source end, and x = distance from source.
• γ = α + jβ , where α = attenuation coefficient (= 0 for
lossless line), and β = phase shift coefficient = 2π /λ
(rad./m)

172
 Incident & Reflected Waves

• For an infinitely long line or a line terminated with a

matched load, no incident power is reflected. The
line is called a flat or nonresonant line.
• For a finite line with no matching termination, part or
all of the incident voltage and current will be
reflected.

173
 Reflection Coefficient

The reflection coefficient is defined as:

Er Ir
Γ= or
Ei Ii

It can also be shown that: Z L − Zo

Γ= = Γ ∠φ
Z L + Zo

Note that when ZL = Zo, Γ = 0; when ZL = 0, Γ = -1;

and when ZL = open circuit, Γ = 1.

174
 Standing Waves
Voltage

Vmax = Ei + Er
Vmin = Ei - Er
λ
2
With a mismatched line, the incident and reflected
waves set up an interference pattern on the line
known as a standing wave. Vmax 1 + Γ
The standing wave ratio is : SWR = V = 1 − Γ
min

175
 Other Formulas

When the load is purely resistive: ZL Zo

SWR = or
(whichever gives an SWR > 1) Zo ZL

Return Loss, RL = Fraction of power reflected

= |Γ |2, or -20 log |Γ | dB
So, Pr = |Γ |2Pi
Mismatched Loss, ML = Fraction of power
transmitted/absorbed = 1 - |Γ |2 or -10 log(1-|Γ |2) dB
So, Pt = Pi (1 - |Γ |2) = Pi - Pr

176
 Simple Antennas

• An isotropic radiator would radiate all electrical power supplied

to it equally in all directions. It is merely a theoretical concept
but is useful as a reference for other antennas.
• A more practical antenna is the half-wave dipole:

λ /
2

Symbol
Balanced Feedline
177
 Half-Wave Dipole

• Typically, the physical length of a half-wave dipole is 0.95 of λ /2 in

free space.
• Since power fed to the antenna is radiated into space, there is an
equivalent radiation resistance, Rr. For a real antenna, losses in
the antenna can be represented by a loss resistance, Rd. Its
efficiency is then:

Pr Rr
η= =
PT Rr + Rd
178
3-D Antenna Radiation Pattern

179
 Gain and Directivity

• Antennas are designed to focus their radiation into

lobes or beams thus providing gain in selected
directions at the expense of energy reductions in
others.
• The ideal λ /2 dipole has a gain of 2.14 dBi (i.e. dB
with respect to an isotropic radiator)
• Directivity is the gain calculated assuming a lossless
antenna

180
 EIRP and Effective Area

• When power, PT, is applied to an antenna with a gain GT

(with respect to an isotropic radiator), then the antenna is
said to have an effective isotropic radiated power, EIRP =
PTGT.
• The signal power delivered to a receiving antenna with a
gain GR is PR = PDAeff where PD is the power density, and
Aeff is the effective area.

EIRP λ2GR
PD = ; Aeff =
4πr 2
4π
181
 Impedance and Polarization

• A half-wave dipole in free space and centre-fed has a

radiation resistance of about 70 Ω .
• At resonance, the antenna’s impedance will be
completely resistive and its efficiency maximum. If
its length is < λ /2, it becomes capacitive, and
if > λ /2, it is inductive.
• The polarization of a half-wave dipole is the
same as the axis of the conductor.

182
 Ground Effects

• Ground effects on antenna pattern and resistance are

complex and significant for heights less than one
wavelength. This is particularly true for antennas
operating at HF range and below.
• Generally, a horizontally polarized antenna is
affected more by near ground reflections than a
vertically polarized antenna.

183
 Folded Dipole

• Often used - alone or with other elements - for TV and FM

broadcast receiving antennas because it has a wider bandwidth
and four times the feedpoint resistance of a single dipole.

184
 Monopole or Marconi Antenna

Main characteristics:
 vertical and λ /4
 good ground plane is
required
 omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane
 3 dBd power gain
 impedance: about 36Ω

185
 Loop Antennas

Main characteristics:
 very small dimensions
 bidirectional
 greatest sensitivity in the
plane of the loop
 very wide bandwidth
 efficient as RX antenna with
single or multi-turn loop

186
 Antenna Matching

• Antennas should be matched to their feedline for

maximum power transfer efficiency by using an LC
matching network.
• A simple but effective technique for matching a short
vertical antenna to a feedline is to increase its
electrical length by adding an inductance at its base.
This inductance, called a loading coil, cancels the
capacitive effect of the antenna.
• Another method is to use capacitive loading.

187
 Inductive and Capacitive Loading

Capacitive
Inductive Loading
Loading
188
 Collinear Array

 all elements lie along a straight line, fed in phase, and often
mounted with main axis vertical
 result in narrow radiation beam omnidirectional in the
horizontal plane

189
 2-Way Mobile Communications

• 1) Mobile radio, half-duplex, one-to-many, no dial

tone:
– e.g. CB, amateur (ham) radio, aeronautical, maritime, public safety,
emergency, and industrial radios
• 2) Mobile Telephone, Full-duplex, one-to-one:
– Analogue cellular (AMPS) using FDMA or TDMA
– Digital cellular (PCS) using TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA
– Personal communications satellite service (PCSS) using both FDMA
and TDMA

190
 Mobile Telephone Systems

• Mobile telephone began in the early 1980s first as the

MTS (Mobile Telephone Service) at 40 MHz and later
as the IMTS (Improved MTS) at 150 and 450 MHz.
• Narrowband FM and relatively high transmit power
were used.
• Limited channels (total of only 33) and interference
were problems.

191
 Advanced Mobile Phone System

• AMPS divide area into cells with low power transmitters in each
cell.
• Max. 4 W ERP for mobile radios; max. 600 mW for portable
phones; to reduce interference min. power needed for
communications is used at all times.
• Base station: 869.040 – 893.970 MHz; mobile unit’s frequency is
45 MHz below.
• Total of 790 duplex voice channels and 42 control channels
available at 30 kHz each.
• Channels are divided in 7- or 12-cell repeated pattern and
frequencies are reused

192
 Block Diagram Of Analogue Cell Phone

Antenna
Speaker
mixer IF IF Audio
RF amp De-emphasis
amp detector amp

Display
Frequency
Duplexer Microprocessor
synthesizer
Keypad
Data

RF power FM Audio preamp

Mic
amp modulator & Pre-emphasis
6 mW – 3W

193
 7-Cell Pattern

• Each cell has a base station.

• All cell sites in a region are
tied to a mobile switching
6 3 centre (MSC) or mobile
5 7 6 telephone switching office
1 5 (MTSO) which in turn is
4 2 1
connected to other MSCs.
3 4

In a real situation, the cells are

more likely to be approximately
circular, with some overlap.

194
 Cellular Radio Network

BSC: Base Station Controller

MSC: Mobile Switching Centre

BSC BSC BSC BSC BSC BSC BSC

To other Gateway MSC

MSC
MSCs MSC

To other BSCs
To Public Switched BSC
Telephone Network
195
 Cell-Site Control

• BSC assigns channels and power levels, transmitting

signaling tones, etc.
• MSC routes calls, authorizing calls, billing, initiating
handoffs between cells, holds location and
authentication registers, connects mobile units to the
PSTN, etc.
• Sometimes BSC and MSC are combined.
• Cells can be subdivided into mini and micro cells to
increase subscriber capacity in a region.

196
 Digital Cellular Telephone

• The United States Digital Cellular (USDC) system is backward

compatible with the AMPS frequency allocation scheme but
using digitized signals and PSK modulation.
• It uses TDMA (Time-Division Multiple Access) to increase the
number of subscribers threefold with the same 50-MHz
frequency spectrum.
• It provides higher security and better signal quality.
• TDMA Service in the 1900 MHz band is also in use since there is
no room in the 800 MHz band for expansion.

197
 Code-Division Multiple-Access System

• CDMA is a totally digital cellular telephone system.

• It is more commonly found in the 1900 MHz PCS band with up to
11 CDMA RF channels.
• Each CDMA RF channel has a bandwidth of 1.25 MHz, using a
single carrier modulated by a 1.2288 Mb/s bitstream using
QPSK.
• Each RF channel can provide up to 64 traffic channels.
• It uses a spread-spectrum technique so all frequencies can be
used in all cells – soft handoff possible.
• Each mobile is assigned a unique spreading sequence to
reduce RF interference.

198
 Global System For Mobile Communications

• GSM uses frequency-division duplexing and a

combination of TDMA and FDMA techniques.
• Base station frequency: 935 MHz to 960 MHz; mobile
frequency: 45 MHz below
• 1800 MHz is allocated for PCS in Europe while North
America utilizes the 1900 MHz band.
• RF channel bandwidth is 200 kHz but each can hold 8
voice/data channels.

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 Personal Communications Satellite System

• PCSS uses either low earth-orbit (LEO) or medium

earth-orbit (MEO) satellites.
• Advantages: can provide telephone services in
remote and inaccessible areas quickly and
economically.
• Disadvantages: high risk due to high costs of
designing, building and launching satellites; also
high cost for terrestrial-based network and
infrastructure. Mobile unit is more bulky and
expensive than conventional cellular telephones.

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