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The information encoded in the DNA is transferred to
messenger RNA and then decoded by the ribosome to
produce proteins.
5’ATGCCTAGGTACCTATGA3’ DNA
3’TACGGATCCATGGATACT5’
Transcription
5’AUGCCUAGGUACCUAUGA3’ mRNA
decoded as
5’AUG CCU AGG UAC CUA UGA3’
Translation
NMETPROARGTYRLEUC Protein
Alanine tRNA
Generalized tRNA
Modified Bases
Found in tRNAs
= UH2
tRNAs are activated by aminoacyl tRNA synthetases
Structure of an amino acyltRNA synthetase bound to a tRNA
One mechanism for maintaining high fidelity of protein
synthesis is the high fidelity of aatRNA synthetases
Aminoacyl tRNA synthetases:
One synthetase for each amino acid
a single synthetase may recognize multiple tRNAs
for the same amino acid
Two classes of synthetase.
Different 3dimensional structures
Differ in which side of the tRNA they recognize
and how they bind ATP
Class I monomeric, acylates the 2’OH on the terminal ribose
Arg, Cys , Gln, Glu, Ile, Leu, Met, Trp Tyr, Val
Class II dimeric, acylate the 3’OH on the terminal ribose
Ala, Asn, Asp, Gly, His, Lys, Phe, Ser, Pro, Thr
Two levels of control to ensure that the proper amino acid
is incorporated into protein: 1) Charging of the proper tRNA
2) Matching the
cognate tRNA to the
messenger RNA
Incorporation of amino acids into polypeptide chains I
Incorporation of amino acids into polypeptide chains II
Protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes
Protein synthesis occurs on ribosomes
and mitochondria
Ribosome Assembly
The proteins of each
ribosomal subunit
are organized around
rRNA molecules
16S rRNA
Ribosome Assembly: takes place largely in a specialized domain of
the nucleus, the nucleolus
In the nucleolus, RNA polymerase I transcribes the rDNA repeats
to produce a 45S RNA precursor
The 45S precursor
is processed
and cleaved into
mature rRNAs and
ribosomal proteins
then bind to generate
the large and small
ribosomal subunits
23S rRNA secondary structure
3D organization of the eukaryotic large subunit rRNA
Ribosomal Proteins decorate the surface of the ribosome
Large subunit. Grey = rRNA Gold = ribosomal proteins
Ribosomal proteins often have extensions that snake into
the core of the rRNA structure
Crystal structure of L19
L15 (yellow) positioned in a fragment
of the rRNA (red)
The ribosomal proteins are important for maintaining the
stability and integrity of the ribosome, but NOT for catalysis
ie. the ribosomal RNA acts as a ribozyme
The large and small subunits come together to form the ribosome
Mitochondrial
or Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic 60S subunit 80S ribosome 40S subunit
The association of the large and small subunits creates the
structural features on the ribosome that are essential for
protein synthesis
Three tRNA binding
sites:
A site = aminoacyl
tRNA binding site
P site = peptidyltRNA
binding site
E site = exit site
In addition to the APE sites there is an mRNA binding groove
that holds onto the message being translated
There is a tunnel through the large subunit that allows the
growing polypeptide chain to pass out of the ribosome
Peptide bond formation is catalyzed by the large subunit rRNA
Peptide bond formation is catalyzed by the large subunit rRNA
Incorporation of the correct amino acyltRNA is determined
by basepairing interactions between the anticodon of the
tRNA and the messenger RNA
=EF1 Proper reading of the
anticodon is the second
important quality control
step ensuring accurate
protein synthesis
Elongation factors
Introduce a twostep
“Kinetic proofreading”
A second elongation factor
EFG or EF2, drives the
translocation of the ribosome
along the mRNA
Together GTP hydrolysis
by EF1 and EF2 help drive
protein synthesis forward
Termination of translation
is triggered by stop codons
Release factor enters
the A site and triggers
hydrolysis the peptidyltRNA
bond leading to release of
the protein.
Release of the protein causes
the disassociation of the
ribosome into its constituent
subunits.
Release Factor is a molecular mimic of a tRNA
eRF1 tRNA
Initiation of Translation
Initiation is controlled differently in prokaryotic and
eukaryotic ribosomes
In prokaryotes a single transcript can give rise to multiple proteins
In prokaryotes, specific
sequences in the mRNA around
the AUG codon, called
ShineDelgarno sequences,
are recognized by an intiation
complex consisting of a Met
aminoacyl tRNA, Initiation
Factors (IFs) and the small
ribosomal subunit
GTP hydrolysis by
IF2 coincident with
release of the IFs and
binding of the large
ribosomal subunit leads
to formation of a complete
ribosome,on the mRNA
and ready to translate.
Eukaryotic mRNAs have a distinct structure at the 5’ end
Structure of the 7methyl guanosine cap
The 7meG cap is required
for an mRNA to be
translated
In contrast, Eukaryotes
use a scanning mechanism
to intiate translation.
Recognition of the AUG
triggers GTP hydrolysis
by eIF2
GTP hydrolysis by
eIF2 is a signal for
binding of the large
subunit and beginning
of translation
Messenger RNAs are translated on polyribosomes
Protein synthesis is often regulated at the
level of translation initiation
An example of control of specific mRNAs: regulation by iron (Fe):
Ferritin is a cytosolic iron binding protein expressed when
iron is abundant in the cell.
Transferrin receptor is a plasma membrane receptor important
for the import of iron into the cytosol.
They are coordinately regulated, in opposite directions, by
control of protein synthesis.
Regulation by iron (Fe):
There is also general control of translational initiation.
ie. all transcripts of the cell are effected (though the relative
effect differs between specific mRNAs)
Global downregulation or upregulation can occur in response
to various stimuli the most common are
1) Nutrient availability
low nutrient (amino acids/carbohydrate)
downregulates translation
2) Growth factor signals.
stimulation of cell division upregulates translation
General control of translational initiation is exerted through
two primary mechanisms.
Control of the phosphorylation of eIF2
Control of the phosphorylation of eIF4 binding proteins
Control of translation by eIF2 phosphorylation
Stimulated by
Amino acid deprivation
Control of translation by eIF4E availability
The 7MEG cap binding subunit of eIF4, eIF4E, is sequestered
by eIF4E binding protiens (4EBPs). The binding of these
proteins is regulated by their phosphorylation state
Growth Nutrient
Factors Limitation
Nutritional
2
controls
Nutritional signals can control both the recognition of the mRNA
and loading of the 40S subunit.
Modification of the translation machinery is a common
feature of viral life cycles
e.g. Picornaviruses
Polio virus
Encephalomyocarditis virus
Picornaviruses have single stranded RNA genomes.
Poliovirus Life Cycle
The poliovirus genome is translated into a single,
large polyprotein that then autoproteolyzes itself into
smaller proteins.
One of these proteins, viral protease 2A cleaves
the translation initiation factor eIF4G so that it
can no longer function as a bridge between the
methyl cap binding subunit and the 40S subunit
The consequence of this cleavage is that translation of
cellular mRNAs stops
But…the viral RNA is still translated due to the presence of
an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES). This acts like a
bacterial initiation site to allow Capindependent initiation
from internal AUG codons.
What is X?
“X” is not a protein, as suggested
by the textbook model at right,
rather it is a structure in the mRNA
itself that can bind to the remaining
fragment of eIF4G
Some cellular mRNAs are also translated using IRESs
During G2/M phase of the cell cycle, translation is generally
downregulated by activation of 4EBPs. Many proteins expressed
during this period bypass this control by using IRES elements
Ribosomal Frameshifting
Because translation
uses a triplet code,
there are three potential
reading frames in
each mRNA
As the ribosome translocates, it moves in three nucleotide
steps, ensuring that the frame defined by the AUG is used
throughout translation
If the ribosome moves 1 or 2 (or 4 or 5) nucleotides
this produces a frameshift
Many retroviruses induce ribosomal frameshifting in
the synthesis of viral proteins
e.g. HIV
Translation Inhibitors are important antibiotics