m









c A body of techniques for the investigation of

phenomena and the acquisition of new
knowledge, based on observable, empirical,
measurable evidence, and subject to laws of
reasoning.
  
m
m
. Objective process
2. Interpretation of result is unbiased.
3. Attempts to achieve control over the factors
involved in the area of inquiry
4. document, archive and share all data and
methodology so they are available for careful
scrutiny by other scientists, giving them the
opportunity to verify results by attempting to
reproduce them. (˜


 


   m

. Description ² the information must be reliable,

reproducible and relevant to the inquiry.
2. Prediction ² the information must be valid for
observations past, present, and future of
given phenomena.
3. Control ² gaining the ability to manipulate a
variable if possible and appropriate.

   m
4. Understanding ² identification of the cause or
causes of a particular phenomenon to the best
achievable extent.
a. Covariation of events ² hypothesized cause
must correlate with observed effect.
b. Time-order relationship ² hypothesized cause
must occur before observed effect.
c. Elimination of plausible alternatives ² repeated
experiments by multiple researchers who must be
able to replicate the results to validate them.
  


cAll hypotheses and theories are in principle

subject to disproof.µ
-A consensus about a particular hypothesis or
theory remains tentative.
-Repeated predictable results increases the
confidence in the hypothesis or theory.
 m
. Iteration - the act of repeating a process
usually with the aim of approaching a desired
goal or target or result.
2. Recursions - method where the solution to a
problem depends on solutions to smaller
instances of the same problem.
3. Interleavings - a way to arrange data in a non-
contiguous way to increase performance.
4. Orderings ² putting into context all data
mm
m

. Characterization ² quantification,
observations and measurement.
2. Hypothesis ² theoretical, hypothetical,
explanation of observations and
measurements
3. Predictions ² reasoning including logical
deduction from hypotheses and theories.
4. Experiments ² tests of all the above
 m
 m





Observation

Experiment Hypothesis



m 
. Define the question
2. Gather information and resources
3. Form hypothesis
4. Perform experiment and collect data
5. Analyze data
6. Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve
as a starting point for new hypotheses.
7. Publish results
mm


c Prepare a scientific action following the

scientific method in your own practice.
 m m





. Science is not a linear process

- it need not start with a question or an
observation
2. Science does not necessarily connote
experimentation
- inspiration can come from the natural world,
from reading what others have done, from
talking to colleagues or from experience.
 m m





3. Science uses multiple types of research

towards investigating phenomena.
- experimentation, description, comparison and
modeling.
4. Results from one research study may lead in
directions not originally anticipated, or even in
multiple directions.
 m
 

 
m




. The practice of science involves many possible

pathways. The classic description of the
scientific method as a linear or circular process
does not adequately capture the dynamic yet
rigorous nature of the practice.
 m
 

 
m




2. Scientists use multiple research methods to

gather data and develop hypotheses.

3. Scientific research methods are

complementary; when multiple lines of
evidence independently support one another,
hypotheses are strengthened and confidence
in scientific conclusions improve.
m 
m

Experimentation ² used to investigate the

relationship(s) between two or more variables
when at least one of those variables can be
intentionally controlled or manipulated.
Ex: Louis Pasteur experimentation on soup broth
and the appearance of maggots in an effort to
study the source of the organism
m 
m

Description ² used to gather data regarding

natural phenomena and natural relationships
and includes observations and measurements
of behaviors.
Ex: Copernicus·s observations and sketches of
the movements of planets in the sky in an
effort to determine if the earth or the sun is the
orbital center of those objects.
m 
m
c Comparison is used to determine and quantify
relationships between two or more variables by
observing different groups that either by choice or
circumstance are exposed to different treatments.
c
Comparison includes both retrospective studies
that look at events that have already occurred,
and prospective studies, that
examine variablesfrom the present forward.
c
m 
m

c Comparative research is similar to

experimentation in that it involves comparing
a treatment group to a control, but it differs in
that thetreatment is observed rather than
being consciously imposed due to ethical
concerns, or because it is not possible, such as
in aretrospective study.
m 
m
c Úodeling involves developing physical, conceptual, or
computer-based representations of systems.
c
Scientists build models to replicate systems in the real
world through simplification, to perform an experiment
that cannot be done in the real world, or to assemble
several known ideas into a coherent whole to build and
test hypotheses.
c
Computer modeling is a relatively new scientific
research method, but it is based on the same principles
as physical and conceptual modeling.