Energy Storage

• In the past 2 classes we have discussed battery technologies and how their
characteristics may or may not be suitable for microgrids.

• Batteries are suitable for applications where we need an energy delivery

profile. For example, to feed a load during the night when the only source is PV
modules.

• However, batteries are not suitable for applications with power delivery
profiles. For example, to assist a slow load-following fuel cell in delivering
power to a constantly and fast changing load.

• For this last application, two technologies seem to be more appropriate:

• Ultracapacitors (electric energy)
• Flywheels (mechanical energy)

• Other energy storage technologies not discussed in here are superconducting

magnetic energy storage (SMES – magnetic energy) and compressed air (or
some other gas - mechanical energy)
1 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Power vs. energy delivery profile technologies
• Ragone chart:

• More information and charts can be found in Holm et. al., “A Comparison of
Energy Storage Technologies as Energy Buffer in Renewable Energy Sources
with respect to Power Capability.”
2 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Power vs. energy delivery profile technologies

3 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Electric vs. Magnetic energy storage
• Consider that we compare technologies based on energy density (J/m3)
[ Energy ] = [Work ] = [ F ][d ] = Nm = J
J Nm N
[ Energy density ] = 3
= 3
= 2 = Pa
m m m

• Plot of energy density vs. length scale (distance between plates or air gap):

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

ECE 468 (Spring 2004)

• Hence, magnetic energy storage (e.g. SMES) is effective for large scale
systems (higher power)
4 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Ultracapacitors
• Capacitors store energy in its electric field.

• In ideal capacitors, the magnitude that relates the charge generating the
electric field and the voltage difference between two opposing metallic plates
with an area A and at a distance d, is the capacitance:
Q
C=
V
• In ideal capacitors:
A
C =ε
d
• Equivalent model of real standard capacitors:

1
ESR = Rw +
ω 2 Rl C 2
5 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Ultracapacitors
• Ultracapacitors technology: construction
• Double-layer technology

http://www.ultracapacitors.org/img2/ultraca
pacitor-image.jpg
•Electrodes: Activated carbon (carbon cloth, carbon black, aerogel carbon,
particulate from SiC, particulate from TiC)
• Electrolyte: KOH, organic solutions, sulfuric acid.

6 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Ultracapacitors technology: construction Ultracapacitor with carbon
nano-tubes electrodes
Double layer
Traditional standard capacitor
capacitor (ultracapacitor)

The charge of ultracapacitors, IEEE

A
Spectrum Nov. 2007 C =ε
d
• Key principle: area is increased and distance is
decreased
• There are some similarities with batteries but there are
no reactions here.
7 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Ultracapacitors
• Ultracapacitors technology: construction

www.ansoft.com/firstpass/pdf/CarbonCarbon_Ultracapacitor_Equivalent_Circuit_Model.pdf

8 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Some typical Maxwell’s ultracapacitor packages:

www.ansoft.com/firstpass/pdf/CarbonCarbon_Ultracapacitor_Equivalent_Circuit_Model.pdf

• At 2.7 V, a BCAP2000 capacitor can store more than 7000 J in the volume of
a soda can.

• In comparison a 1.5 mF, 500 V electrolytic capacitor can store less than 200 J
in the same volume.

9 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Comparison with other capacitor technologies

www.ansoft.com/firstpass/pdf/CarbonCarbon_Ultracapacitor_Equivalent_Circuit_Model.pdf

10 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Charge and discharge:
• With constant current, voltage approximate a linear variation due to a very
large time constant:

• Temperature affects the output (discharge on a constant power load):

www.ansoft.com/firstpass/pdf/CarbonCarbon_Ultr
acapacitor_Equivalent_Circuit_Model.pdf

11 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Aging process:
• Life not limited by cycles but by aging
• Aging influenced by temperature and cell voltage
• Overtime the materials degrade, specially the electrolyte
• Impurities reduce a cell’s life.

Linzen, et al., “Analysis and Evaluation of Charge-Balancing

Circuits on Performance, Reliability, and
Lifetime of Supercapacitor Systems”

12 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Power electronic interface:
• It is not required but it is recommended
• It has 2 purposes:
• Keep the output voltage constant as the capacitor discharges (a
simple boost converter can be used)
• Equalize cell voltages (circuit examples are shown next)

13 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Ultracapacitors
• Model (sometimes similar to batteries)

Mierlo et al., Journal of Power Sources 128

(2004) 76–89

http://www.ansoft.com/leadinginsight/pdf/High
%20Performance%20Electromechanical
%20Design/Ultracapacitor%20Distributed%20Model
%20Equivalent%20Circuit%20For%20Power
%20Electronic%20Circuit%20Simulation.pdf

Ultracapacitors for Use in Power Quality and

Distributed Resource Applications, P. P. Barker
14 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Flywheels
• Energy is stored mechanically (in a rotating disc)

Motor
Generator

Flywheels Energy
Systems

15 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels

http://www.vyconenergy.com

http://www.pentadyne.com

16 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels
• Kinetic energy:
1 2
Ek = I ω
2
where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity of a rotating disc.
I = ∫ r 2 dm
• For a cylinder the moment of inertia is
1 4
I= r π aρ
2
• So the energy is increased if ω increases or if I increases.

• I can be increased by locating as much mass on the outside of the disc as

possible.

• But as the speed increases and more mass is located outside of the disc,
mechanical limitations are more important.

17 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels
• Disc shape and material: the maximum energy density per mass and the
maximum tensile stress are related by:
em = Kσ max / ρ
• Typically, tensile stress has 2 components: radial stress and hoop stress.

18 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels
• Since
em = Kσ max / ρ (1)

and
1 2 (2)
Ek = I ω
2
and
" I = r 2m" (3)

then, from (2) and (3)

1 2 2 1 2 (4)
em = rω = v
2 2

So, replacing (1) in (4) it yields

2Kσ max
vmax =
ρ

19 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels
• However, high speed is not the only mechanical constraint
• If instead of holding output voltage constant, output power is held constant,
then the torque needs to increase (because P = Tω) as the speed decreases.
Hence, there is also a minimum speed at which no more power can be
extracted
vmax
• If Vr =
vmin
and if an useful energy (Eu) proportional to the difference between the disk
energy at its maximum and minimum allowed speed is compared with the
maximum allowed energy (Emax ) then
Eu Vr2 − 1
=
Emax Vr2
Eu/Emax

Bernard et al., Flywheel Energy

Vr Storage Systems In Hybrid And
Vr Distributed Electricity Generation

20 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008

 Flywheels
• In order to reduce the friction (hence, losses) the disc is usually in a vacuum
chamber and uses magnetic bearings.

Bernard et al., Flywheel Energy

Storage Systems In Hybrid And
Distributed Electricity Generation

• Motor / generators are typically permanent magnet machines. There are 2

types: axial flux and radial flux. AFPM can usually provide higher power and
are easier to cool.

Bernard et al., Flywheel Energy Storage Systems In Hybrid And

Distributed Electricity Generation
21 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008
 Flywheels
• Simplified dynamic model

• Typical outputs

Flywheels Energy
Systems

22 © Alexis Kwasinski, 2008