The Research

Process/Steps

Lecture 5 and Lecture 6

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 Quantitative Research
• Based on the ideals of positivism
• Precise quantitative data rigorous
exact measures
• Hallmarks of good research:
– Objective observation
– Precise measurements
– Statistical analysis
– Hypothesis are tested by carefully
analyzing the data

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 Quantitative Research
-cont
– The aim of positivist research is to identify
universal laws of human behaviour
– ‘reality’ is out there waiting to be discovered
– There is an assumption that the ideal
quantitative research design is to identify
the research hypothesis ( the expected
solution to the problem) and to attempt to
prove that this research hypothesis is not
correct- that is to prove the null hypothesis

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 Types of quantitative
methods
• Surveys
• Experiments

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 Qualitative Research
• Human beings are complex, somewhat
unpredictable beings and that individual
differences and idiosyncratic needs
override any notion of universal laws of
human behaviours.
• The role of research is seen to be the
deep understanding of human
behaviour
• True meaning can only be discovered by
detailed study and contemplation of rich
multifarious evidence of human thoughts
and behaviour

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 Qualitative Research -cont
• Reality is seen as constructed by individuals
• Qualitative research reveals peoples values,
interpretive schemes, mind maps, belief
systems and rules of living
• Concerned with careful and detailed
descriptions of social practices in an
attempt to understand how participants

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 General types of qualitative
methods:
1. Case Studies : the researcher explores a
single entity or phenomenon (‘the case’)
2. Ethnographic Studies : the researcher
studies an intact cultural group in a natural
setting.
3. Phenomenological Studies :human
experiences are examined through the
detailed description of the people being
studied -- the goal is to understand the ‘lived
experience’ of the individuals being studied.

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 Two Purposes Of Theory
• Prediction
• Understanding

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10
 Business Researchers Operate at Two
Levels

 Abstract level (the idea)

• concepts
• Propositions
– Theory deals with abstraction. Ideas are the
essence of theories not things/objects
 Empirical level (the reality)
• variables
• hypotheses

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Theory Building A Process
Of Increasing Abstraction

Increasingly more abstract

Theories

Propositions

Concepts

Observation of objects
and events (reality )
 Concepts are Abstractions
of Reality

Abstract CONCEPTS
Level

Empirical OBSERVATION OF OBJECTS

Level AND EVENTS (REALITY)
 Scientific Method
The use of a set of prescribed
procedures for establishing and
connecting theoretical statements
about events and for predicting
events yet unknown.
 The nature of propositions
• Propositions are statements concerning
the linkages between concepts
– Quality products sell for higher prices
– Lower priced goods sell faster
– Reinforcements will increase habit strength

• Theories are networks of propositions

 Proposition at Abstract Level

Concept A Concept B
(Reinforcement) (Habits)

Hypothesis at Empirical Level

Dollar bonus for

sales volume Always makes
over quota four sales calls
a day
• A hypothesis is a proposition that is
empirically testable. It is an
empirical statement concerned with
the relationship among variables.
• A variable is anything that may
assume different numerical values.
• Examples: age,gender,etc
 The Scientific Method:
An Overview

Assess Formulate Statement

Design
relevant concepts & of
research
existing Propositions Hypotheses
knowledge

Acquire Analyze & Provide

empirical evaluate explanation-
data data state new
problem
Types of Business Research
• Business research produces information to
reduce uncertainty.
• It helps focus the decision-making
• The nature of the problem will determine
whether the research is
• Exploratory
• Descriptive
• Causal

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 Exploratory Studies

– Is conducted to clarify ambiguous

questions

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 Descriptive

– Seeks to describe characteristics of a

population or phenomenon.
– Determines answers for
• Who, What, When, Where, How
 Causal Research

– Main goal is to identify cause and effect

relationships among variables.
– To infer causality:
• Establish appropriate causal order
• Measure the concomitant variation between
the presumes cause and the presumed
outcome
• Recognize the presence or absence of
alternative plausible explanations or casual
factors
 Degree of Problem
Definition
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal
Research
(Unaware of Problem) (Aware of Problem) (Problem
Clearly Defined)
possible situation

“Our sales are declining and “What kind of people are buying
“Will buyers purchase more of
we don’t know why.” our product? Who buys our our products in
a new package?
competitor’s product?”
“Would people be interested “Which of two
advertising
in our new product idea?” “What features do buyers prefer
campaigns is more effective?”
in our product?”
 Uncertainty Influences
The Type Of Research

CAUSAL OR COMPLETELY ABSOLUT EXPLORATORY

DESCRIPTIVE CERTAIN E
AMBIGUI
TY
 The Research Process
1. Catalyst for research [problem/challenge]
2. Preliminary information gathering and
literature review
3. Problem definition
4. Framework development
5. Research objectives /research questions
6. Research design
7. Sampling and Data collection
8. Data analysis
9. Interpretation of findings
10.Report preparation and presentation
11.Management action

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 Stages of the Research Process
Problem Discovery Discovery and
and Definition Definition

Research and so on
Design Conclusions and
Report

Sampling
Data Processing
and Analysis
Data
Gathering
A model of the research process
Problem Discovery Problem Selection of
and Definition discovery exploratory research
technique
Sampling

Selection of
exploratory research
technique ProbabilityNonprobability

Secondary
Experience Pilot Case Collection of
(historical) Data
survey study study data
data Gathering
(fieldwork)

Data
Editing and
Problem definition Processing
coding
(statement of and
Analysis data
research objectives)

Data
Selection of processing
Research Design basic research
method Conclusions
Interpretation
and Report
of
findings
Experiment Survey
Secondary
Laborator Field Intervie Questionnair Observation
Data Study Report
y w e
“The formulation
of the problem is
often more
essential than its
solution”
Albert Einstein
 Defining Problem Results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives
Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation
Exploratory
Research
(Optional)
Problem Definition

Statement of
Research Objectives
 Catalyst for research
problem/challenge and the framework
development
• Problem:
– A situation where there is a gap between what
is real and what is ideal or desired
• Identifying problems suitable for research
– Drawing on knowledge and experience
– Exploring the literature review
– Identifying needs
• Do a stakeholder analysis

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 Stakeholder analysis
• Identifying the scope, extent or number
of people likely to be
– Adversely affected by a problem situation
– Causal to a problem situation
– Involved in potential problem alleviation
• Finding out whether, how and why
there is a problem
• Recognizing that the various
stakeholders have diverse attitudes and
opinions of the same problem: “No
problem!”
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 Unpacking problems
• Problems generally have a complex,
multi-faceted and some times
inconsistent nature
– Explore the dominant worldview
– explore your own perspective
– Explore the perspectives held by the
various stakeholders

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 From Problems to research
questions
• The starting point of the research
journey
• Research questions :
– Define an investigation
– Set boundaries
– Provide direction
– Act as a frame of reference for
assessing your work

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 Developing the question
Step 1. Write down the answers to the
following questions
a. What I your topic
b. What is the context of your research
c. What do you want to achieve
d. What is the nature of your question
e. Are there any potential relationships
you want to explore

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 Developing the question
-cont
Step 2. Begin to piece together the
answers generated in step 1.
For example:
Topic: increasing costs
Context: regional stores
Goal : why is there an increase in costs
Nature of your question: who- managers
and why-underlying causes
Relationship: link between store size and
costs 37
 Developing the question –
cont 3
• Step 3. decide on the number of
questions
• Step 4, Narrow and clarify your
question until your question is
concise and well-articulated
• Step 5. Assess the questions (s) in
relation to the question checklist.

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 The real world question
checklist
• Is the question right for you?
• Does the question have significance for an
organization , an institution a group, field,
ect?
• Can it lead to tangible situation
improvement
• Is the question well articulate?
• Is the question researchable
• Does the question have a level of political
support?
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 Changing focus
• Research questions can and do often
change, shift and evolve during the
early stages of a project/study
• The research journey is not linear
and we frequently go back and forth
between the various steps/stages.
 The Role and Need for a
research hypothesis
The need for a research hypothesis
– A Hypothesis is a
• Logical conjecture (hunch or educated guess)
about the nature of relationships between 2 or
more variables expressed in the form of testable
statement
• The role of the hypothesis is to take
your research question a step further
by offering a clear and concise
statement of what you think you will
find in relation to your variables and
what you are going to test
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 Research design
• A research design is a master plan
specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and
analysing the needed information.

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 What is Research Design?
• A plan for selecting the sources and
types of information used to answer
research questions
• A framework for specifying the
relationships among the study
variables
• A blueprint that outlines each
procedure from the hypothesis to the
analysis
 What is Research Design?
• An activity-and time based plan
• A procedural outline for every
research activity
• A guide for selecting sources and
types of information
 Research Design
• Master plan
• Framework for action
• Specifies methods and procedures
 Sampling and data
collection
• Sampling involves any procedure
that uses a small number of items to
make conclusion regarding the whole
population.
– Who is to be sampled?
• Collecting data is the process of
gathering information

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 Sampling
• Who is to be sampled?
• How large a sample?
• How will sample units be selected?
Data Gathering Stage
Data Processing and
Analysis
 Data Analysis
• Editing and coding is done before the
data can be analyzed.
• The Editing process is where problems
or mistakes in the data is rectified.
• Before data can be tabulated,
meaningful categories and character
symbols must be established for groups
of responses.
• The rules for interpreting , categorizing
and recording data is called coding

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 Interpreting the findings
-conclusions
• Interpreting the information
gathered and drawing conclusions .
• A summary of the most pertinent
findings

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 Report preparation
• The research report should
communicate the research findings
effectively.

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 Management Action
• Research is only as good as the
applications made of it or the
decisions takes as a result of it.

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