12/01/11

Waves
W Richards

The Weald School

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Circular Motion
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Circular Motion
1) Is this car travelling at constant speed?

2) Is this car travelling at constant velocity?

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Centripetal Acceleration
If the velocity is changing then it must be accelerating...

Va This change in velocity is

towards the centre of the
circle so the acceleration
and is towards the centre
if the circle –
ΔV
“Centripetal Acceleration”
Vb
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Radians
To further understand circular motion we need to use a
different system for measuring angles:

Old method New method

s
r

Angle = 300 Angle = s/r rad

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Radians
Calculate the following angles in radians:
15cm
1) 2)
1.5cm
2cm

6cm

3) 2.05cm 4)
50.24m

5mm 8m
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Centripetal Acceleration
Consider a circle:
v1
v1 θ
v2 Δv
v2
r
If we assume θ is very
small then v1 = v2 = v
θ
Therefore θ = Δv/v

Also θ = vΔt/r

Therefore Δv/v = vΔt/r

Δv/Δt = v2/r

a = v2/r
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More Exciting Equations
From the last slide a = v2/r but F=ma so centripetal F = mv2/r
force F = mv2/r

The “angular speed” is the “angular distance” divided by ω = θ/t

time, or ω = θ/t

The total time period T for one revolution must

therefore be the time taken to complete 2π ω = 2π/T
revolutions, or ω = 2π/T

“Frequency” is how often something happens every

second, so T = 1/f. Therefore ω = 2πf ω = 2πf

For a whole circle, v = 2πr/T. However, T = 2π/ω. v = rω

Therefore v = rω

Acceleration a = v2/r, therefore a = rω2 a = rω2

Finally, this must mean that F = mrω2 F = mrω2

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Example questions
1) A disc spins twice per second. Calculate its angular speed.
2) Estimate the angular speed of the Earth.
3) Scoon spins a conker around his head using a 50cm long
string. The conker has a mass of 0.1kg and he spins it with
a velocity of 2ms-1 . Calculate the centripetal force.
4) Calculate the velocity of a satellite moving with an angular
speed of 7x10-5 rads-1 and at an altitude of 700km above
the Earth (radius 6370km).
5) Tom drives his car in circles. If he drives with an angular
speed of 1 rads-1 how many times will he make a complete
turn in 10 seconds?
6) If the combined mass of Tom and his car is 1000kg
calculate the centripetal force if his turning circle has a
radius of 3m.
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Simple Harmonic Motion

Definition: simple harmonic motion is when

acceleration is proportional to displacement
and is always directed towards equilibrium.
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Simple Harmonic Motion
Consider a pendulum bob:

Let’s draw a graph of displacement against time:

Equilibrium position “Sinusoidal”
Displacement

Time
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SHM Graphs
Displacement

Time

Velocity

Time

Acceleration

Time
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The Maths of SHM
Displacement
As we’ve already seen,
SHM graphs are
“sinusoidal” in shape: Time

Therefore we can describe the motion mathematically as:

x = x0cosωt

v = -x0ωsinωt a = -ω2x

a = -x0ω2cosωt
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The Maths of SHM
Recall our definition of SHM:

Definition: simple harmonic motion is when

acceleration is proportional to displacement
and is always directed towards equilibrium.

This agrees entirely with the maths: a

a = -ω2x x

Important – remember ω = 2π/T

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a SHM questions
5
1) Calculate the gradient of this
graph
x 2) Use it to work out the value
2 of ω
3) Use this to work out the time
period for the oscillations

a
4) Howard sets up a pendulum and lets it swing
10 times. He records a time of 20 seconds
for the 10 oscillations. Calculate the period
and the angular speed ω.
x
5) The maximum displacement of the pendulum
is 3cm. Sketch a graph of a against x and
indicate the maximum acceleration.
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SHM Maximum Values
x = x0cosωt
Consider our three
SHM equations: v = -x0ωsinωt

a = -x0ω2cosωt

Clearly, the maximum value that sinωt can take is 1, therefore:

xmax = x0 (obviously)

vmax = -x0ω (or max speed = ωx0)

amax = -ω2x0
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SHM periods: Two examples
For a pendulum the only thing
that affects the period is
the length of the string:

√
T = 2π l
g
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SHM periods: Two examples
For a spring there are two
things that affect the period
– the mass and the spring
constant:

m
T = 2π
√ k

Where k is defined as “the

force needed to extend the
spring by a given number of
metres” (units Nm-1 ):

F = -kΔx
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More questions
1) Define simple harmonic motion.
2) A pendulum in a grandfather clock has a period of 1 second.
How long is the pendulum?
3) Luke sets up a 200g mass on a spring and extends it beyond
its equilibrium. He then releases it and enjoys watching it
bounce up and down. If the period is 10s what is the spring
constant?
4) Nick is envious of this and sets up another system with a
spring constant of 0.1Nm-1 . If the spring oscillates every 8
seconds how much mass did he use?
5) Simon sets up a pendulum and records the period as being 3
seconds. He then lengthens the pendulum by 1m and does
the experiment again. What is the new period?
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SHM recap questions
1) Define SHM and state “the golden SHM equation”
2) A body is performing SHM and is temporarily at rest at time t=0.
Sketch graphs of its displacement, velocity and acceleration.
a
10
3) A body is performing SHM as shown on
this graph. Calculate its angular speed and
its time period T. x
5
4) What is this body’s maximum speed?

5) A 1kg mass is attached to a spring of spring constant 10Nm-1 . The mass

is pulled down by 5cm and released. It performs SHM. Calculate the
time period of this motion.
6) Describe the energy changes in this system as it bounces up and down.
7) Calculate the length of a pendulum if it oscillates with a period of 5s.
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SHM: Energy change

Equilibrium position Energy

GPE

K.E.

Time
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Waves

02/09/10
LO; To define a progressive wave and
it’s properties.
To state and apply the wave equation.
Waves revision
12/01/11

Watch a “Mexican Wave”

 Some definitions…
12/01/11

1) Amplitude – this is the

maximum displacement of
a wave.

2) Wavelength (λ ) – this is the

distance between two
corresponding points on the
wave and is measured in metres:

3) Frequency (f)– this is how many waves pass by

every second and is measured in Hertz (Hz)
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http://www.upscale.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harris
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Period

This is the time it takes an ocsillation

to repeat itself.

Symbol: T. Measured is Seconds (s)

f=1
T
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Transverse vs. longitudinal waves
Transverse

Displacement
waves are when
the displacement
is at right angles
to the direction
of the wave… Direction

Displacement
Longitudinal
waves are when
the displacement
is parallel to the
direction of the
Direction wave…
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The Wave Equation
The wave equation relates the speed of the wave to its
frequency and wavelength:

Wave speed (v) = frequency (f) x wavelength (λ )

in m/s in Hz in m

f λ
Some example wave equation questions
12/01/11

1) A water wave has a frequency of 2Hz and a wavelength

of 0.3m. How fast is it moving?
0.6m/s

2) A water wave travels through a pond with a speed of

1m/s and a frequency of 5Hz. What is the wavelength
of the waves?
0.2m

3) The speed of sound is 330m/s (in air). When Dave

hears this sound his ear vibrates 660 times a second.
What was the wavelength of the sound? 0.5m

4) Purple light has a wavelength of around 6x10-7 m and a

frequency of 5x1014 Hz. What is the speed of purple
light? 3x108m/s
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Wave pulse: one oscillation of a wave.

Progressive wave: a continuous number

of wave pulses.
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Waves

Waves : A wave transfers energy with

no net transfer of matter.
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Travelling Waves
Definition: A travelling wave (or “progressive wave”)
is one which travels out from the source that made
it and transfers energy from one point to another.

Energy dissipation

Clearly, a wave will get weaker the further it travels.

Assuming the wave comes from a point source and travels out
equally in all directions we can say:

Energy flux = Power (in W) P

φ=
(in Wm-2 ) Area (in m2) 4πr2

An “inverse square law”

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Example questions
1) Harry likes doing his homework. His work is 2m from a
100W light bulb. Calculate the energy flux arriving at his
book.

2) If his book has a surface area of 0.1m2 calculate the total

amount of energy on it per second (what assumption did you
make?).

3) Matt doesn’t like the dark. He switches on a light and

stands 3m away from it. If he is receiving a flux of 2.2W
what was the power of the bulb?

4) Matt walks 3m further away. What affect does this have

on the amount of flux on him?
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Polarisation
Consider a single wave of light:

If you looked at it “end on” it might look like this:

And lots of them

might look like this:
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Polarisation
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Polarisation
Unpolarised waves: are a mixture of all
possible planes of oscillation.

Polarised waves: have oscillations in one

plane only.

Only Transverse waves can be polarised.

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Amplitude and Energy

Do small and big amplitudes have the

same energy?
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Amplitude and Energy

Do small and big amplitudes have the

same energy?

No – it is clear that bigger amplitudes

carry more energy
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Amplitude and Energy
What happens to the energy when you
double the amplitude?
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Amplitude and Energy

The equation for potential energy of a

wave.

Change in = mass x g x change in height

Potential
Energy
(J) (kg) (m/s2) (m)
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Amplitude and Energy
So as the amplitude doubles the change
in height doubles.

But also the mass of the wave also

doubles.
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Amplitude and Energy

• Therefore the energy will increase 4

times.

• Energy is directly proportional to

(amplitude)2
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Amplitude of
Damping
driven system
Low damping

High damping

Driver frequency
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Refraction Revision
12/01/11
 Refraction through a glass block:
12/01/11

Wave slows down and bends

towards the normal due to
entering a more dense medium

Wave slows down but is

not bent, due to entering
along the normal

Wave speeds up and bends

away from the normal due to
entering a less dense medium
 Finding the Critical Angle…
12/01/11

1) Ray gets refracted 2) Ray still gets refracted

4) Ray gets
3) Ray still gets refracted (just!) internally reflected

THE CRITICAL
ANGLE
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Uses of Total Internal Reflection
Optical fibres:

An optical fibre is a long, thin, _______ rod made of

glass or plastic. Light is _______ reflected from one
end to the other, making it possible to send ____
chunks of information

Optical fibres can be used for _________ by sending

electrical signals through the cable. The main advantage
of this is a reduced ______ loss.

Words – communications, internally, large, transparent, signal

 Wave diagrams
12/01/11

1) Reflection 2) Refraction

3) Refraction 4) Diffraction
 Diffraction
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More diffraction if the size of the gap is similar to the wavelength

More diffraction if wavelength is increased (or frequency decreased)

Sound can also be diffracted…
12/01/11

The explosion can’t be seen over the hill, but it can be

heard. We know sound travels as waves because sound
can be refracted, reflected (echo) and diffracted.
Diffraction depends on frequency…
12/01/11

A high frequency (short wavelength)

wave doesn’t get diffracted much – the
house won’t be able to receive it…
Diffraction depends on frequency…
12/01/11

A low frequency (long wavelength) wave

will get diffracted more, so the house
can receive it…
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Phase Difference
Phase difference means when waves have the same frequency
but oscillate differently to each other. For example:

These two waves have

different amplitudes but
the same frequency and hit
their peaks at the same
time – they are “in phase”

These two waves start

opposite to each other –
they are “in antiphase” or
“out of phase by π radians”
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Phase Difference

What is the phase difference between

each of these waves?
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Coherence
Two waves are said to be “coherent” if they have the same
frequency and the same constant phase difference. For
example:

These waves have a

different frequency,
so phase is irrelevant.
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Coherence

These waves have the same frequency

and the same constant phase
difference, so they are “coherent”
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Superposition
Superposition is seen when two waves of the same type cross.
It is defined as “the vector sum of the two displacements of
each wave”:
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Superposition patterns
Consider two point sources (e.g. two dippers or a barrier with
two holes):
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Superposition of Sound Waves
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Path Difference
Constructive Destructive
interference interference 1st Max

Min

Max

Min

1st Max

2nd Max
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Young’s Double Slit Experiment
D

s O

A
λ x xs
= λ =
s D D Screen
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Interference Patterns from 2 slits

Intensity

Distance
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Interference Patterns from 1 slit

Intensity

Distance
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Stationary Waves

3 nodes 2 antinodes

5 nodes 4 antinodes
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Quantum Physics
W Richards

The Weald School

“Quantum” = “a small
packet of energy”
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Introduction
Some basic principles:

1) The wavelength of blue light is around 400nm (4x10-7 m)

2) The wavelength of red light is around 650nm (6.5x10-7 m)
3) Therefore blue light is higher frequency than red light
4) Light is treated as being a wave. Therefore the amount of
energy a light wave contains should depend on its intensity
or brightness.
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Photoelectric Emission
Consider a gold-leaf electroscope…

Now charge the top:

-- - - --
- -

5000V

+
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Photoelectric Emission
Let’s put a piece of zinc on top:
Now shine some UV light onto it:

U
lt
ra
-v
io
le Ultra-violet light is
t
causing the zinc to

- - - emit electrons –
- - this is
“Photoelectric
Emission”.
-

-
-
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Some definitions…
For zinc, this effect is only seen when UV light
is used, i.e. when the light has a frequency of
1x1015 Hz or higher. This is called the
“Threshold Frequency” and is generally lower
for more reactive metals.

Max Planck (1858-1947) proposed that

electromagnetic radiation, like light, comes in
small packets. The general name for these
packets is “quanta”.

In the specific case of electromagnetic radiation, a quanta is called a

“photon” and its energy depends on its frequency, not how bright it is.

The amount of energy needed to release an electron from a metal is called

the “work function” and is given the symbol φ. Generally, work functions
are lower for more reactive metals.
 12/01/11
Photoelectron Energy

…and some energy is

given to the electron as
kinetic energy.

Some energy is needed

- to release the electron
(the work function φ)…

Photon Energy = work function + kinetic energy of electron

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Calculating Photon Energy
I think that the energy of a photon is
proportional to its frequency, so E=hf, where
h = Planck’s Constant = 6.63x10-34 Js.

On the previous slide we said that…

Photon energy = work function + kinetic energy of electron

hf = φ + 1/2mv2
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Measuring the Energy of a Photoelectron

Illuminate Electrons are

the A
“stopped” by
electrode: this voltage

V -

+
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The “Hill” analogy
To help us understand this further, let’s say the electron is
like a ball rolling up a hill…
Negative electrode The amount of potential energy
the electron gains is equal to the
amount of kinetic energy it had at
the start.
Vs In electric terms, the voltage the
electron can work against
depends on how much energy it
- had.

Energy of electron = QVs = 1/2 mv2

…where Vs is the “stopping voltage” (i.e. the height of the hill

it can go up before coming back down again).
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Photon Energy
Combining the previous two slides, we get:
Photon energy = work function + kinetic energy of electron
hf = φ + QVs

Vs
Let’s rearrange to
give us a straight Gradient =
line graph: h/Q

Vs = h f – φ
Threshold
Q Q frequency

Photon frequency
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Photocurrent vs Voltage
If this voltage is large and negative
A
no electrons will be able to move “up
the hill”, so current is zero.
V
However, if the voltage is positive
electrons will be “helped up the hill”:

“Saturation” – all the

Photocurrent electrons that get
emitted are received.

Vs Voltage
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Photocurrents for different light
1) Different intensities:

Photocurrent Bright

Dim

Voltage

Vs is the same, because the electrons are emitted with

the same energy (due to the same frequency of light)
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Photocurrents for different light
2) Different frequencies:

Photocurrent Red

Blue

Voltage
Vs is different as electrons emitted by blue light will have
more energy (as blue light is higher frequency). Notice that
the intensities are the same – the different saturations are
because more electrons are emitted by red (but with less
 12/01/11
Photocurrents
Recall the equation W=QV…
This equation states that the work done on an electron (of
charge 1.6x10-19 C) as it moves through a potential difference
of 1V is given by:

W = QV = 1.6x10-19 x 1 = 1.6x10-19 J

This is called “the electronvolt”, i.e. the work done on one

electron as it moves through 1 volt. We can convert J into
eV by dividing by 1.6x10-19 .

Convert the following work functions into electronvolts:

1) Caesium – 3.11x10-19 J
2) Sodium – 3.78x10-19 J
3) Zinc – 5.81x10-19 J
 12/01/11
Spectra
Consider a ball in a hole:

When the ball is

here it has its 5J
lowest gravitational
5J
potential energy.
30J

We can give it
20J
potential energy by
lifting it up:

If it falls down again it

will lose this gpe:
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Spectra
A similar thing happens to electrons. We can “excite” them
and raise their energy level:

0eV An electron at this energy

level would be “free” – it’s
-0.85eV
been “ionised”.
-1.5eV

-3.4eV These energy levels are

negative because an electron
here would have less energy
than if its ionised.

-13.6eV This is called “The ground

state”
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Spectra
If we illuminate the atom we can excite the electron:

0eV Q. What wavelength of light

-0.85eV would be needed to excite
this electron to ionise it?
-1.5eV

-3.4eV Light

Energy change = 3.4eV = 5.44x10-19 J.

Using E=hc/λ wavelength = 3.66x10-7 m

-13.6eV
(In other words, ultra violet light)
 12/01/11
Example questions
1) State the ionisation energy of this
atom in eV. 0eV
2) Calculate this ionisation energy in -0.85eV
joules. -1.5eV
3) Calculate the wavelength of light
needed to ionise the atom. -3.4eV

4) An electron falls from the -1.5eV to

the -3.4eV level. What wavelength
of light does it emit and what is the
colour?
5) Light of frequency 1x1014 Hz is
-13.6eV
incident upon the atom. Will it be
able to ionise the atom?
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Different view of atoms
The Bohr Atom 0eV
Electrons are only allowed to
have discrete energy values and
these correspond to changes in +
orbit.

Amplitude
The Schrodinger Atom
Electrons behave like stationary
waves. Only certain types of
wave fit the atom, and these
correspond to fixed energy
states.
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Spectra
Continuous spectrum

Absorption spectrum

Emission spectrum
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Emission Spectra
Hydrogen

Helium

Sodium
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Evidence about the origins of

the universe…
In other words, let us revise
Red Shift. Logical.
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Source of
light “Spectra”
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If you pass the light through a gas something

different is seen…

helium

Some wavelengths of light

are absorbed by the gas –
an “absorption spectrum”.
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If the light source is moving away the absorption
spectra look a little different…

Before

helium
helium

After
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The absorption lines have all been “shifted”
towards the longer wavelength end (red end)…
Before
This is called red
shift. The faster
the light source
moves the further
its light will be
“shifted”

After
A similar effect happens with sound
– this is called “The Doppler
Effect”
Hear Doppler Effect
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Doppler Effect
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Light from different stars and from
the edge of the universe also shows
this “red-shift”. This suggests that
the universe is expanding.

This is the BIG

BANG theory
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Star Spectra
Before
Basically, “Red shift” is an
apparent shift in wavelengths
of light towards the red
(higher wavelength) end of the
spectrum. It occurs when the
light source is moving away
from us. This effect is known
as “the Doppler effect”.
After
The speed of this movement can be calculated:

Δf Δλ v
= =
f λ c
 12/01/11
Hubble’s Law
Astronomers have observed Red Shift in lots
of galaxies and deduced the fact that more
distant galaxies are moving faster than
closer ones. I took this a step further:

xx
x
Recession velocity
Edwin Hubble,
xx
1889-1953 x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Distance to galaxy
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Hubble’s Law xx

Recession velocity
x
xx
x
x
x
x
x x
x

Distance to galaxy

Using this evidence I concluded two things: that the

universe is expanding AND the recession velocity is
proportional to the galaxy’s distance from us, therefore:

V = Hd

…where H = Hubble’s Constant (2±1 x 10-18 s-1 )

 12/01/11
The End of the Universe
Basically, how the universe will end
depends on its “energy-mass density”.

Stephen Hawking
Now Open universe
Size of universe

Critical
density

Closed
universe

Time