Fresnel's Equations for Reflection and

Refraction
Incident, transmitted, and reflected beams at interfaces

Reflection and transmission coefficients

The Fresnel Equations

Brewster's Angle

Total internal reflection

Power reflectance and transmittance

Phase shifts in reflection Prof. Rick Trebino

Georgia Tech
The mysterious evanescent wave www.phyhsics.gatech.
edu/frog/lectures
Definitions

 i
ki  r k
r

ni

y kt
t

z nt
x
 More definitions
Perpendicular (“S”)
polarization sticks out
of or into the plane of Incident medium
incidence.
 
ki kr
Ei Er ni
i r
Interface
Plane of the interface (here the
yz plane) (perpendicular to page)
y
t
x nt
z Et 
Parallel (“P”) kt
polarization lies
parallel to the plane of
incidence. Transmitting medium
Fresnel Equations
Ei Er
We would like to compute the
fraction of a light wave reflected
and transmitted by a flat
Et
interface between two media
with different refractive indices.

r  E0 r / E0i for the r  E0 r / E0i for the

perpendicular parallel
t  E0t / E0i polarization t  E0t / E0i polarization

where E0i, E0r, and E0t are the field complex amplitudes.
We consider the boundary conditions at the interface for the electric
and magnetic fields of the light waves.
We’ll do the perpendicular polarization first.
Boundary Condition for the Electric
Field at an Interface
The Tangential Electric Field is Continuous

In other words:
 
The total E-field in
ki kr
the plane of the Ei Er ni
interface is Bi i r Br y
continuous.
Interface
z x
Here, all E-fields are t
in the z-direction, Et nt
which is in the plane 
of the interface (xz),
Bt kt
so:

Ei(x, y = 0, z, t) + Er(x, y = 0, z, t) = Et(x, y = 0, z, t)

Boundary Condition for the Magnetic
Field at an Interface
The Tangential Magnetic Field* is Continuous

In other words:
 
The total B-field in ki kr
the plane of the Ei Er ni
interface is i
continuous. Bi i i r Br
y
Interface
Here, all B-fields are
t z x
in the xy-plane, so Et
we take the nt

x-components: Bt kt

–Bi(x, y=0, z, t) cos(i) + Br(x, y=0, z, t) cos(r) = –Bt(x, y=0, z, t) cos(t)

*It's really the tangential B/, but we're using 0

Reflection and Transmission for
Perpendicularly (S) Polarized Light
Canceling the rapidly varying parts of the light wave and keeping
only the complex amplitudes:

E0i  E0 r  E0t
 B0i cos(i )  B0 r cos( r )   B0t cos(t )

But B  E /(c0 / n)  nE / c0 and  r   i :

ni ( E0 r  E0i ) cos(i )   nt E0t cos(t )

Substituting for E0t using E0i  E0 r  E0t :

ni ( E0 r  E0i ) cos(i )  nt ( E0 r  E0i ) cos( t )

Reflection & Transmission Coefficients
for Perpendicularly Polarized Light
Rearranging ni ( E0 r  E0i ) cos(i )  nt ( E0 r  E0i ) cos(t ) yields:

E0 r  ni cos(i )  nt cos( t )  E0i  ni cos( i )  nt cos( t )

Solving for E0 r / E0i yields the reflection coefficient :

r  E0 r / E0i   ni cos( i )  nt cos( t )  /  ni cos( i )  nt cos( t ) 

Analogously, the transmission coefficient, E0t / E0i , is

t  E0t / E0i  2ni cos( i ) /  ni cos( i )  nt cos( t ) 

These equations are called the Fresnel Equations for

perpendicularly polarized light.
 Simpler expressions for r┴ and t┴
Recall the magnification at
an interface, m: i
wi
ni
wt cos(t ) nt
m  wt
wi cos(i ) t

Also let  be the ratio of the refractive indices, nt / ni.

Dividing numerator and denominator of r and t by ni cos(i:

r   ni cos(i )  nt cos(t )  /  ni cos( i )  nt cos( t )    1   m  /  1   m 

t  2ni cos(i ) /  ni cos(i )  nt cos(t )   2 /  1   m 

1 m 2
r  t 
1 m 1 m
Fresnel Equations—Parallel electric field

  This B-field y
ki kr points into
Ei Br the page.
x
z
Bi Er
i r ni
Interface
Beam geometry Note that Hecht
for light with its
electric field
t uses a different
notation for the
parallel to the
Et nt reflected field,
plane of incidence Bt  which is
(i.e., in the page) kt confusing!
Ours is better!

Note that thereflected

 magnetic field must point into the screen to
achieve E  B  k . The x means “into the screen.”
Reflection & Transmission Coefficients
for Parallel (P) Polarized Light

For parallel polarized light, B0i - B0r = B0t

and E0icos(i) + E0rcos(r) = E0tcos(t)

Solving for E0r / E0i yields the reflection coefficient, r||:

r||  E0 r / E0i   ni cos(t )  nt cos(i )  /  ni cos(t )  nt cos(i ) 

Analogously, the transmission coefficient, t|| = E0t / E0i, is

t||  E0t / E0i  2ni cos(i ) /  ni cos(t )  nt cos(i ) 

These equations are called the Fresnel Equations for parallel

polarized light.
Simpler expressions for r║ and t║

r||  E0 r / E0i   ni cos(t )  nt cos(i )  /  ni cos(t )  nt cos(i ) 

t||  E0t / E0i  2ni cos(i ) /  ni cos(t )  nt cos(i ) 

Again, use the magnification, m, and the refractive-index ratio, .

And again dividing numerator and denominator of r and t by ni cos(i:

r   m    /  m   

t  2 /  m   

m 2
r  t 
m  m
Reflection Coefficients for an Air-to-Glass
Interface
nair  1 < nglass  1.5 1.0

Reflection coefficient, r
Note that:
Brewster’s angle
.5
r||=0! r||
Total reflection at  = 90°
for both polarizations
0
Zero reflection for parallel
polarization at Brewster's
angle (56.3° for these
values of ni and nt). -.5 r┴

(We’ll delay a derivation of a

formula for Brewster’s angle -1.0
until we do dipole emission 0° 30° 60° 90°
and polarization.) Incidence angle, i
Reflection Coefficients for a Glass-to-Air
Interface
1.0
nglass  1.5 > nair  1 Critical
angle

Reflection coefficient, r
.5 r┴
Note that:
Total internal
reflection
Total internal reflection
0
above the critical angle
Brewster’s
crit  arcsin(nt /ni) angle
-.5

(The sine in Snell's Law Critical r||

can't be > 1!): angle
-1.0
0° 30° 60° 90°
sin(crit)  nt /ni sin(90)
Incidence angle, i
  c  2
Transmittance (T) I   n 0 0  E0
 2 
I t At A = Area
T  Transmitted Power / Incident Power 
I i Ai

Compute the i
wi
ratio of the ni At wt cos(t )
nt
  m
beam areas: 1D beam wt
Ai wi cos(i )
expansion t
2
The beam expands in one dimension on refraction. E0t
 t2
  0c0  2 E0i
2
n E
I t At  t 2  0t  wt  nt E0t wt nt 2 cos(t )
2

T      t
I i Ai   0c0  2
 wi  ni E0i wi ni cos(i )
2

 ni 2  E0i
 

  nt cos  t    2
 T  t   mt
2 The Transmittance is also

  ni cos  i   
called the Transmissivity.
Reflectance (R)  c 
I   n 0 0  E0
2

 2 
I r Ar A = Area
R  Reflected Power / Incident Power 
I i Ai

wi
i r
ni wi
nt

Because the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection,

the beam area doesn’t change on reflection.

Also, n is the same for both incident and reflected beams.

So:
R  r2 The Reflectance is also
called the Reflectivity.
Reflectance and Transmittance for an
Air-to-Glass Interface

Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization

1.0 1.0
T T
.5 .5

R R
0 0
0° 30° 60° 90° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, i Incidence angle, i

Note that R+T =1

Reflectance and Transmittance for a
Glass-to-Air Interface

Perpendicular polarization Parallel polarization

1.0 1.0
R R
.5 .5

T T
0 0
0° 30° 60° 90° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, i Incidence angle, i

Note that R+T =1

Reflection at normal incidence
When i = 0, 2
   nt  ni 
R   
n
 t  ni 

and 4 nt ni
  T 
 nt  ni 
2

For an air-glass interface (ni = 1 and nt = 1.5),

 
R = 4% and T = 96%
 
The values are the same, whichever direction the light travels, from
air to glass or from glass to air.
 
The 4% has big implications for photography lenses.
Practical Applications of Fresnel’s Equations
Windows look like mirrors at night (when you’re in a brightly lit room).

Indoors ow Outdoors
d
in
W
RIin TIin

Iin Iout

TIout RIout

Iin >> Iout R = 8% T = 92%

One-way mirrors (used by police to interrogate bad guys) are just

partial reflectors (aluminum-coated), and you watch while in the dark.
Disneyland puts ghouls next to you in the haunted house using partial
reflectors (also aluminum-coated).
Practical Applications of Fresnel’s Equations

Lasers use Brewster’s angle components to avoid reflective losses:

R = 100% 0% reflection!
Laser medium R = 90%

0% reflection!

Optical fibers use total internal reflection.

Hollow fibers use high-incidence-angle near-unity reflections.

Phase shifts in reflection (air to glass)

 1.0
180°

Reflection coefficient, r
phase Brewster’s angle r||
shift
┴ for all
0

angles r
0 ┴
0° 30° 60° 90° -1.0
Incidence angle 0° 30° 60°
Incidence angle, i
90°

180° phase shift

|| for angles below
Brewster's angle;
0 0° for larger angles
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle
 Phase shifts in reflection (glass to air)
1.0

Critical
Interesting angle

Reflection coefficient, r
phase r
┴ above the
┴ Total
internal
0
critical reflection
Brewster’s
0 angle angle
0° 30° 60° 90°
Critical
Incidence angle angle r||
 -1.0
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle, i

||
180° phase shift
0 for angles below
0° 30° 60° 90° Brewster's angle;
Incidence angle 0° for larger angles
Phase shifts vs.
incidence angle
and ni /nt

i
Note the general behavior ni /nt
above and below the
various interesting
angles…

ni /nt
Li Li, OPN, vol. 14, #9,
pp. 24-30, Sept. 2003 i
If you slowly turn up a laser intensity incident
on a piece of glass, where does damage happen
first, the front or the back?
The obvious answer is the front of the object, which sees the
higher intensity first.

But constructive interference happens at the back surface between

the incident light and the reflected wave.

This yields an irradiance that is 44% higher just inside the back
surface!
(1  0.2) 2  1.44
Phase shifts with coated optics
Reflections with different magnitudes can be generated using
partial metallization or coatings. We’ll see these later.

But the phase shifts on reflection are the same! For near-normal
incidence:
180° if low-index-to-high and 0 if high-index-to-low.

Highly reflecting coating

Example: on this surface
Laser Mirror

Phase shift of 180°

Total Internal Reflection occurs when sin(t) > 1,
and no transmitted beam can occur.

Note that the irradiance of the transmitted beam goes to zero (i.e.,
TIR occurs) as it grazes the surface.

Brewster’s angle

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is 100% efficient, that is, all the light is reflected.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection

Beam steerers

Beam steerers
used to compress
the path inside
binoculars
Three bounces: The Corner Cube

Corner cubes involve three reflections and also displace the return
beam in space. Even better, they always yield a parallel return beam:

If the beam propagates in the z direction, it emerges in the –z

direction, with each point in the beam (x,y) reflected to the (-x,-y)
position.

Hollow corner cubes avoid propagation through glass and don’t

use TIR.
Fiber Optics
Optical fibers use TIR to transmit light long distances.

They play an ever-increasing role in our lives!

Design of optical fibers
Core: Thin glass center of the fiber that carries the light

Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects the light back into the core

Buffer coating: Plastic protective coating

ncore > ncladding

Propagation of light in an optical fiber

Light travels through the

core bouncing from the
reflective walls. The walls
absorb very little light from
the core allowing the light
wave to travel large
distances.

Some signal degradation occurs due to imperfectly constructed glass

used in the cable. The best optical fibers show very little light loss --
less than 10%/km at 1.550 m.

Maximum light loss occurs at the points of maximum curvature.

Microstructure fiber
Air holes
In microstructure fiber, air holes
act as the cladding surrounding
a glass core. Such fibers have
different dispersion properties.

Core

Such fiber has

many applications,
from medical
imaging to optical
clocks.

Photographs courtesy of
Jinendra Ranka, Lucent
Frustrated Total Internal Reflection
By placing another surface in contact with a totally internally
reflecting one, total internal reflection can be frustrated.

Total internal reflection Frustrated total internal reflection

n=1 n=1
n n
n n

How close do the prisms have to be before TIR is frustrated?

This effect provides evidence for evanescent fields—fields that leak through
the TIR surface–and is the basis for a variety of spectroscopic techniques.
The Evanescent Wave   
ki i k r ni
The evanescent wave is the
"transmitted wave" when total internal y t 
reflection occurs. A mystical quantity! k t nt
x
So we'll do a mystical derivation:
E0 r  ni cos(i )  nt cos(t ) 
r  
E0i  ni cos(i )  nt cos(t ) 
Since sin(t )  1, t doesn't exist, so computing r is impossible.
Let's check the reflectivity, R, anyway. Use Snell's Law to eliminate t :
2
 ni 
cos(t )  1  sin (t )  1    sin 2 (i )  Neg. Number
2

 nt 
Substituting this expression into the above one for r and
 a  bi   a  bi 
redefining R yields: R  r r*     1
 a  bi   a  bi 
So all power is reflected; the evanescent wave contains no power.
The Evanescent-Wave k-vector
The evanescent wave k-vector must
have x and y components:   
ki i kr ni
Along surface: ktx = kt sin(t) y 
t
kt nt
Perpendicular to it: kty = kt cos(t) x

Using Snell's Law, sin(t) = (ni /nt) sin(i), so ktx is meaningful.

And again: cos(t) = [1 – sin2(t)]1/2 = [1 – (ni /nt)2 sin2(i)]1/2

= ± i

Neglecting the unphysical -i solution, we have:

Et(x,y,t) = E0 exp[–ky] exp i [ k (ni /nt) sin(i) x – t ]

The evanescent wave decays exponentially in the transverse direction.

FTIR, the
evanescent
wave, and
fingerprinting

See TIR from a

fingerprint valley
and FTIR from a
ridge. This works
because the ridges
are higher than the
evanescent wave
penetration.