Digital Communication

Lecture Two

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Today
• Frequency Domain & Time Domain
Analysis
• Spectrum of pulse train
• Pulse Modulation
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Pulse code Modulation (PCM)

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Frequency Domain & Time Domain
Analysis:
• Frequency domain is a term used to describe
the analysis of mathematical functions or
signals with respect to frequency.
• A time domain graph shows how a signal
changes over time

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Fourier Series

aO 2
h(t )    (an cos O nt  bn sin O nt )
T T n 1

aO 2
h(t )    Cn cos(O nt  n )
T T n 1
1
  bn 
C n  (a  b )
2
n
2
n
2  n  tan 
1

 an 
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1. Spectrum of a periodic pulse train

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Composite Signals
• a signal made of many simple sine waves
• combination of simple sine waves with
different frequencies, amplitudes, and
phases
• A digital signal is a composite analog signal
with an infinite bandwidth.
• Bandwidth = Highest Frequency – Lowest
Frequency

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 Transmission of Digital Signals
• Baseband Transmission: means sending a
digital signal over a channel without changing
the digital signal to analog signal. Baseband
Transmission requires a low-pass channel, a
channel with a bandwidth that starts from
zero.
• Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation):
It requires a Bandpass channel.

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 Baseband transmission of a digital
signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have a
low-pass channel with an infinite or very
wide bandwidth.
In baseband transmission, the required
bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate; if
we need to send bits faster, we need more
bandwidth.

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2. Pulse Modulation
• describes the process in which the
amplitude, width or position of
individual pulses in a periodic pulse
train are varied with the amplitude of
a baseband information g(t).

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3. Sampling:
• It is the process of selecting values of a
continuous function at specific (and
equally spaced) times. There are 2 types
of sampling:
– Natural sampling
– Flat-topped sampling

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 Examples of Sampling:

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Nyquist sampling theorem
“If a band-limited signal is sampled at
regular intervals of time and at a rate
equal to or higher than twice the highest
significant signal frequency, then the
sample contains all the information of
the original signal. The original signal
may then be reconstructed by use of a
low-pass filter.”

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Continued…
or,

“a continuous signal can be properly

sampled, only if it does not contain
frequency components above one-half of
the sampling rate. “

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Continued…

Fs  2 fmax

Where Fs is the sampling frequency or rate.

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Examples:
• 4-kHz voice channel: sampling rate is 8000
times per second . A sample is taken every
125 sec,
• A 15-kHz program channel: sampling rate is
30,000 times per second
• An analog radar product channel 56-kHz wide:
sampling rate is 112,000 times per second

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4. Quantization:
• Quantization is the process of
approximating the continuous values in a
signal with a finite set of values.
• To quantize the amplitude, the range of
values is divided into parts (segments).
• Every quantization segment is
represented by a unique digital word.

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Types of quantizers
1. Uniform Quantizer:
A quantizer is uniform if the levels are
equally spaced (step size () is constant)
2. Non-uniform Quantizer:
In this type the levels are not of equal size.
Implementing non-uniform quantizers is
difficult. Thus, they are rarely used.

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Uniform Quantizer
VM X  Vmax  Vmin
2 N   
L  L

 is the quantization step VM is the maximum input voltage

L is the number of quantization levels
n is the number of bits in the codeword
N is the result of amplitude quantization
X is the analog amplitude value
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Example
The following table shows an analog signal values taken at
discrete time intervals Use a 4 bit quantizer to find the
output codewords
Time signal value Time signal value
0 2.20 6 1.8
1 1.84 7 1.3
2 -0.08 8 1.0
3 -1.07 9 -0.5
4 -0.02 10 -1.12
5 0.42
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Quantization Error

SNRdB = 6.02n + 1.76 dB

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5. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
• There are three steps in the development of
a PCM signal from that analog model:
1. Sampling;
2. Quantization; and
3. Coding.

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PCM standards
1. The North American standard, (called T1)
we prefer the term DS1 PCM hierarchy.
2. E1 hierarchy, sometimes refer to as the
“European” system. E1 was called
CEPT30+2, where CEPT stood for
Conference European Post and Telegraph
(from the French).

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PCM Encoder

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PCM Decoder

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 DS1 Frame
• Sampling frequency 8000 Hz
• Output bit rate 1.544 Mbps + 50 Mbps
• Bits/Frame 193
• Time slots/Frame 24
• Signaling Eight bit of every 6th frame

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Continued…

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Continued…

This makes up a full sequence or frame. By

definition, 8000 frames are transmitted per
second, so the bit rate of DS1 is:
193  8000 1,544,000 bps or 1.544 Mbps

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The E1 European PCM system
• 32 channels
• 30 transmit speech (or data) derived
from incoming telephone trunks and the
remaining 2 channels transmit
synchronization-alignment and signaling
information

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Continued…
TS Type of Information

0 Synchronizing (framing)

1-15 Speech

16 signaling

17-31 speech

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Continued…
E1 in its primary rate format transmits 32
channels of 8-bit time slots. An E1 frame
therefore has 832 = 256 bits. There is no
framing bit. Framing alignment is carried
out in TS 0. The E1 bit rate to the line is:

2568000 = 2,048,000 bps or 2.048 Mbps.

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