Cellular Respiration: Harvesting Chemical Energy: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 9
Cellular Respiration:
Harvesting Chemical Energy
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: Life Is Work
• Living cells
– Require transfusions of energy from outside
sources to perform their many tasks

• The giant panda
– Obtains energy for its cells by eating plants
Figure 9.1
• Energy
– Flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and
leaves as heat Light energy
ECOSYSTEM
Photosynthesis
in chloroplasts Organic
CO2 + H2O Cellular + O2
molecules
respiration
in mitochondria
ATP
powers most cellular work
Heat
Figure 9.2 energy

• Concept 9.1: Catabolic pathways yield energy
by oxidizing organic fuels

Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP
• The breakdown of organic molecules is
exergonic

• One catabolic process, fermentation
– Is a partial degradation of sugars that occurs
without oxygen

• Cellular respiration
– Is the most prevalent and efficient catabolic
pathway
– Consumes oxygen and organic molecules
such as glucose
– Yields ATP

• To keep working
– Cells must regenerate ATP

Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction
• Catabolic pathways yield energy
– Due to the transfer of electrons

The Principle of Redox
• Redox reactions
– Transfer electrons from one reactant to
another by oxidation and reduction

• In oxidation
– A substance loses electrons, or is oxidized
• In reduction
– A substance gains electrons, or is reduced

• Examples of redox reactions
becomes oxidized
(loses electron)
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl–
becomes reduced
(gains electron)

• Some redox reactions
– Do not completely exchange electrons
– Change the degree of electron sharing in

covalent bonds
Reactants Products
becomes oxidized
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + Energy + 2 H2O
H becomes reduced
H H
C C
H
O O O
H
O O
Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

(reducing (oxidizing
agent) agent)
Figure 9.3
Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During
Cellular Respiration
• During cellular respiration
– Glucose is oxidized and oxygen is reduced
becomes oxidized
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
becomes reduced

Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron
Transport Chain
– Oxidizes glucose in a series of steps

• Electrons from organic compounds
– Are usually first transferred to NAD+, a
coenzyme 2e +2H – +
2 e– + H +
NAD +
NADH
H
O Dehydrogenase
H H O
NH2 + 2[H] Reduction of NAD+ NH2 +
C C
(from food) Oxidation of NADH
N+ N Nicotinamide
Nicotinamide
O CH2 (oxidized form) (reduced form)
O
O P O –
O H H
O P O– HO OH NH2
CH2HO
O N N
H
N N H
O
H H
HO OH Figure 9.4
• NADH, the reduced form of NAD+
– Passes the electrons to the electron transport
chain

• If electron transfer is not stepwise
– A large release of energy occurs
– As in the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to

form water H2 + 1/2 O2
Free energy, G
Explosive
release of (a) Uncontrolled reaction
heat and light
energy
Figure 9.5 A H2O

• The electron transport chain
– Passes electrons in a series of steps instead of
in one explosive reaction
– Uses the energy from the electron transfer to
form ATP

2H + / 2 O2
1
(from food via NADH)
Controlled
release of
2 H + + 2 e–
energy for
synthesis of
Elec
ATP
ATP
Free energy, G
tron
ATP
t
rans
ATP
port
c
hain
2 e–
1
/ 2 O2
2H +
H2O
Figure 9.5 B (b) Cellular respiration

The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview
• Respiration is a cumulative function of three
metabolic stages
– Glycolysis
– The citric acid cycle
– Oxidative phosphorylation

• Glycolysis
– Breaks down glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate
• The citric acid cycle

– Completes the breakdown of glucose

• Oxidative phosphorylation
– Is driven by the electron transport chain
– Generates ATP

• An overview of cellular respiration
Electrons Electrons carried

carried via NADH and
via NADH FADH2
Oxidative
Citric phosphorylation:
Glycolsis
Glucos acid electron
Pyruvate cycle
e transport and
chemiosmosis
Cytosol
Mitochondrion
ATP ATP ATP
Substrate-level Oxidative
Substrate-level
phosphorylation phosphorylation
phosphorylation
Figure 9.6
• Both glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
– Can generate ATP by substrate-level
phosphorylation
Enzyme Enzyme
ADP
P
Substrate
+ ATP
Figure 9.7 Product

• Concept 9.2: Glycolysis harvests energy by
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
• Glycolysis
– Means “splitting of sugar”
– Breaks down glucose into pyruvate
– Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell

• Glycolysis consists of two major phases
– Energy investment phase Glycolysis Citric Oxidative
acid
cycle phosphorylation
– Energy payoff phase ATP ATP ATP
Energy investment phase
Glucose
2 ATP + 2 P 2 ATP used
Energy payoff phase
4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed
2 NAD+ + 4 e- + 4 H 2 NADH + 2 H+
+
2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O
Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

4 ATP formed – 2 ATP used 2 ATP + 2 H+
2 NAD+ + 4 e– + 4 H 2 NADH
Figure 9.8 +

• A closer look at the energy investment phase

CH2OH
Citric
HH H Glycolysis acid Oxidative
HO H cycle phosphorylation
HO OH
H OH
Glucose
ATP 1
Hexokinase
ADP
CH2OH P
HH OH
OH H
HO
H OH
Glucose-6-phosphate
2
Phosphoglucoisomerase
CH2O P
O CH2OH
H HO
H HO
HO H
Fructose-6-phosphate
3
ATP
Phosphofructokinase
ADP
P O CH2 O CH2 O P
HO
H OH
HO H
Fructose-
1, 6-bisphosphate
4
Aldolase
5 H
P O CH2 Isomerase
C O
C O
CHOH
CH2OH
CH2 O P
Dihydroxyacetone Glyceraldehyde-
phosphate 3-phosphate
Figure 9.9 A
• A closer look at the energy payoff phase

6
2 NAD+ Triose phosphate
dehydrogenase
2 NADH 2 Pi
+ 2 H+
2
P O C O
CHOH
CH2 O P
1, 3-Bisphosphoglycerate
2 ADP
7
Phosphoglycerokinase
2 ATP
2 O–
C
CHOH
CH2 O P
3-Phosphoglycerate
8
Phosphoglyceromutase
2 O–
C O
H C O P
CH2OH
2-Phosphoglycerate
9
2 H2O Enolase
2 O–
C O
C O P
CH2
Phosphoenolpyruvate
2 ADP 10
Pyruvate kinase
2 ATP
2 O–
C O
C O
CH3
Figure 9.8 B Pyruvate

• Concept 9.3: The citric acid cycle completes
the energy-yielding oxidation of organic
molecules
• The citric acid cycle
– Takes place in the matrix of the mitochondrion

• Before the citric acid cycle can begin
– Pyruvate must first be converted to acetyl CoA,
which links the cycle to glycolysis
CYTOSOL MITOCHONDRION
NAD+ NADH + H+
O–
S CoA
2
C O
C O
C O
CH3
1 3
CH3
Acetyle CoA
Pyruvate CO2 Coenzyme A
Transport protein
Figure 9.10

• An overview of the citric acid cycle
Pyruvate Glycolysis Citric Oxidative
acid
(from glycolysis, cycle phosphorylation
2 molecules per glucose)

ATP ATP ATP
CO2
CoA
NADH
+ 3 H+ Acetyle CoA
CoA
CoA
Citric
acid 2 CO2
cycle
FADH2 3 NAD+
FAD 3 NADH
+ 3 H+
ADP + P i
ATP
Figure 9.11
• A closer look at the citric acid cycle

Citric Oxidative
Glycolysis
acid phosphorylation
cycle
S CoA
C O
CH3
Acetyl CoA
CoA SH
NADH O C COO–
+ H+ CH2 1 COO– H2 O
COO– CH2 COO–
NAD +
8 Oxaloacetate HO C COO –
CH2
CH2 2
COO – HC COO–
COO– HO CH
HO CH Malate Citrate
CH2 Figure 9.12 COO–
Isocitrate
COO–
Citric CO2
3
7 acid NAD+
H2 O cycle
COO–
COO– NADH
CH + H+
Fumarate CoA SH CH2
HC
CH2 α-Ketoglutarate
COO–
C O
6 4
COO– CoA SH COO– COO–
CH2 5 CH2
FADH2
CH2 CH2 CO2
FAD NAD+
COO – C O
Succinate Pi S CoA NADH
GTP GDP Succinyl + H+
CoA
ADP
ATP
Figure 9.12
• Concept 9.4: During oxidative phosphorylation,
chemiosmosis couples electron transport to
ATP synthesis
• NADH and FADH2

– Donate electrons to the electron transport
chain, which powers ATP synthesis via
oxidative phosphorylation

The Pathway of Electron Transport
• In the electron transport chain
– Electrons from NADH and FADH2 lose energy
in several steps

• At the end of the chain
– Electrons are passed to oxygen, forming water
NADH
50
FADH2
Free energy (G) relative to O2 (kcl/mol)
I Multiprotein
40 FMN FAD
complexes
Fe•S Fe•S II
O
Cyt b
III
30 Fe•S
Cyt c1
Cyt c IV
Cyt a
Cyt a3
20
10
0 2 H + + 1⁄2 O2
Figure 9.13 H2O

Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism
• ATP synthase
– Is the enzyme that actually makes ATP
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE A rotor within the
H+
membrane spins
H+ H+ clockwise when
H+ H+ flows past
H+
it down the H+
gradient.
H+
H+
A stator anchored
in the membrane
holds the knob
stationary.
A rod (for “stalk”)

extending into
the knob also
spins, activating
catalytic sites in
H+ the knob.
Three catalytic
sites in the
ADP stationary knob
+ join inorganic
Pi ATP
Phosphate to ADP
to make ATP.
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX
Figure 9.14
• At certain steps along the electron transport
chain
– Electron transfer causes protein complexes to
pump H+ from the mitochondrial matrix to the
intermembrane space

• The resulting H+ gradient
– Stores energy
– Drives chemiosmosis in ATP synthase
– Is referred to as a proton-motive force

• Chemiosmosis
– Is an energy-coupling mechanism that uses
energy in the form of a H+ gradient across a
membrane to drive cellular work

• Chemiosmosis and the electron transport chain
Inner
Mitochondrial
Glycolysis
Oxidative
phosphorylation. membrane
electron transport
and chemiosmosis
ATP ATP ATP
H+
H +
H+
H+
Cyt c
Protein complex
Intermembrane of electron
space carners
Q IV
I III
ATP
Inner II synthase
mitochondrial FADH2 H2O
membrane FAD+ 2 H+ + 1/2 O2
NADH+
NAD+ ADP + Pi ATP
(Carrying electrons
from, food) H+
Mitochondrial Chemiosmosis
Electron transport chain
matrix Electron transport and pumping of protons (H ),
+ ATP synthesis powered by the flow
which create an H gradient across the membrane Of H back across the membrane
+ +
Figure 9.15 Oxidative phosphorylation

An Accounting of ATP Production by Cellular
Respiration
• During respiration, most energy flows in this
sequence
– Glucose to NADH to electron transport chain to
proton-motive force to ATP

• There are three main processes in this
metabolic enterprise
Electron shuttles MITOCHONDRION
CYTOSOL 2 NADH
span membrane
or
2 FADH2
2 NADH 2 NADH 6 NADH 2 FADH2
Glycolysis Oxidative
2 Citric phosphorylation:
2 Acetyl acid electron transport
Glucose Pyruvate CoA cycle and
chemiosmosis
+ 2 ATP + 2 ATP + about 32 or 34 ATP

by substrate-level by substrate-level by oxidative phosphorylation, depending
phosphorylation phosphorylation on which shuttle transports electrons
from NADH in cytosol
About
Maximum per glucose: 36 or 38 ATP
Figure 9.16
• About 40% of the energy in a glucose molecule
– Is transferred to ATP during cellular
respiration, making approximately 38 ATP

• Concept 9.5: Fermentation enables some cells
to produce ATP without the use of oxygen
– Relies on oxygen to produce ATP
• In the absence of oxygen

– Cells can still produce ATP through
fermentation

• Glycolysis
– Can produce ATP with or without oxygen, in
aerobic or anaerobic conditions
– Couples with fermentation to produce ATP

Types of Fermentation
• Fermentation consists of
– Glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate
NAD+, which can be reused by glyocolysis

• In alcohol fermentation
– Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps,
one of which releases CO2

• During lactic acid fermentation
– Pyruvate is reduced directly to NADH to form
lactate as a waste product

2 ADP + 2 P1 2 ATP O–
C O
C O
Glucose Glycolysis
CH3
2 Pyruvate
2 NAD+ 2 NADH 2 CO2
H H
H C OH C O
CH3 CH3
2 Ethanol 2 Acetaldehyde
(a) Alcohol fermentation
2 ADP + 2 P1 2 ATP
Glucose Glycolysis O–
C O
C O
2 NAD+ 2 NADH
O CH3
C O
H C OH
CH3
2 Lactate
(b) Lactic acid fermentation
Figure 9.17
Fermentation and Cellular Respiration Compared
• Both fermentation and cellular respiration
– Use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other
organic fuels to pyruvate

• Fermentation and cellular respiration
– Differ in their final electron acceptor
– Produces more ATP

• Pyruvate is a key juncture in catabolism
Glucose
CYTOSOL
Pyruvate
No O2 present O2 present
Fermentation Cellular respiration
MITOCHONDRION
Ethanol Acetyl CoA
or
lactate
Citric
acid
cycle
Figure 9.18

The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis
• Glycolysis
– Occurs in nearly all organisms
– Probably evolved in ancient prokaryotes before

there was oxygen in the atmosphere

• Concept 9.6: Glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle connect to many other metabolic
pathways

The Versatility of Catabolism
• Catabolic pathways
– Funnel electrons from many kinds of organic
molecules into cellular respiration

• The catabolism of various molecules from food
Proteins Carbohydrates Fats
Amino Sugars Glycerol Fatty

acids acids
Glycolysis
Glucose
Glyceraldehyde-3- P
NH3 Pyruvate
Acetyl CoA
Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
Figure 9.19 phosphorylation

Biosynthesis (Anabolic Pathways)
• The body
– Uses small molecules to build other
substances
• These small molecules

– May come directly from food or through
glycolysis or the citric acid cycle

Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback
Mechanisms
– Is controlled by allosteric enzymes at key
points in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle

• The control of cellular respiration
Glucose
Glycolysis
AMP
Fructose-6-phosphate Stimulates
+
Phosphofructokinase
– –
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
Inhibits Inhibits
Pyruvate
ATP Citrate
Acetyl CoA
Citric
acid
cycle
Oxidative
Figure 9.20 phosphorylation

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Chapter 9

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Change the degree of electron sharing in

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + Energy + 2 H2O

Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– As in the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to

Figure 9.5 A H2O

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(from food via NADH)

Figure 9.5 B (b) Cellular respiration

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– The citric acid cycle

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The citric acid cycle

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Electrons Electrons carried

ATP ATP ATP

Figure 9.7 Product

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Breaks down glucose into pyruvate

– Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Energy payoff phase ATP ATP ATP

Energy investment phase

2 ATP + 2 P 2 ATP used

Energy payoff phase

4 ADP + 4 P 4 ATP formed

Glucose 2 Pyruvate + 2 H2O

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

2 molecules per glucose)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• NADH and FADH2

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 9.13 H2O

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A rod (for “stalk”)

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– Drives chemiosmosis in ATP synthase

– Is referred to as a proton-motive force

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings