Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Sandra Cointreau
Global Solid Waste Management Advisor
The World Bank
November 2008, Singapore
ISWA/WMARAS World Congress
scointreau@worldbank.org
Sequence of this Presentation:
Year 2000
• 1 person to 5.4 livestock
Year 2030
• 1 person to 6.4 livestock
• In developing countries:
• Most fifth quarter items, spinal column and heads are sold
untreated for human and animal food. Persistent
contaminants like arsenic, heavy metals and melamine may
concentrate in some of these items.
• Unusable items, like the intestinal and rumen pouch content,
are discharged to open dumps.
• Blood is discharged to drains, surface waters, and blood
ponds that seep into groundwater in developing countries.
• Only modern private sector facilities that cater to local high-
end markets and export operate like high-income countries.
Nutrients and Organic
Loadings– the regulated
discharges:
USGS stream water data from sampling over 500 streams was analyzed in 1993.
Nutrients from agricultural sources were found higher than those from urban sources.
More than half of the levels found could cause algal blooms, which result in decrease of
dissolved oxygen, which can result in loss of aquatic life.
Emerging Diseases
from Animals
• 60% of all 1,415 known infectious diseases can infect both
animals and humans (i.e., zoonotic).
• 70% of all emerging human diseases in the past 15 years
are zoonotic.
• Contact with excreta and carcasses of infected animals are
priority means of transmission for many zoonotic diseases.
• Farm-based livestock wastes (e.g., in over 30% of wastes
in UK) carry zoonotic pathogens*
• Livestock wastes from livestock under stress (during
transport and at slaughtering plants) show high shedding of
zoonotic pathogens (over 80% of wastes)*
Hutchison, ML, et.al., Levels of Zoonotic Agents in British Livestock Manures, 2004
Some Diseases that
Derived from Animals
*J.C. Chee-Sanford, et.al, Occurrence and Diversity of Tetracycline Resistant Genes in Lagoons and
Groundwater Underlying Two Swine Production Facilities, 2001
** Tueber, M Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance, Swiss Laboratory of Food Microbiology, 2001
Waste Treatment and
Antimicrobials
• Antimicrobials are complex compounds that resist biological
decomposition waste treatment.
• Anaerobic digestion destroyed only 59% of oxytetracycline in
manures in 64 days. Methane production was reduced from 20-
80% when manures contain antibiotics, depending on the
concentration of antibiotics in the manures. **
• Composting destroyed 95% of oxytetracyline in manures within
first week. Also, levels of oxytetracycline resistant bacteria were
10-fold lower. ****
• Antibiotics found intact in sewage sludge were ciprofloxacin,
doxycycline, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, and triclosan.***
*J.Fick, et.al., Antivial Osetimiver is not Removed or Degraded in Normal Sewage Treatment, 2007
**O.A. Arikan, et.al., Fate and Effect of Oxytetracycline during Anaerobic Digestion of Manure from Therapeutically Treated Calves.,
2006
***E.Z.Harrison, et.al., Organic Chemicals in Sewage Sludges, 2006
****O.A. Arikan, et.al, Composting Rapidly Reduces Levels of Extractable Oxytetracycline in Manure from Therapeutically Treated Beef
Calves, 2005.
Antibiotic Resistant
Pathogens
• There is horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic
resistant genes in farm animal colons and there is
stable maintenance of resistance transferred genes.
(e.g., tetracycline, erythromycin, ampicillin,
vancomycin, clindamycine resistance common)*,
**
• Antibiotic resistance genes in animals and humans
contain identical elements, enabling spread from
animal microflora to human microflora through
the fecal-oral route.**
*N.B. Shoemaker, et.al. Evidence for Extensive Resistance Gene Transfer, 2000.
** M.Tueber, M Veterinary Use and Antibiotic Resistance, Swiss Laboratory of Food Microbiology, 2001
Examples of
Antibiotic Resistance
• One out of every three cases of human infection
by Salmonella is resistant to antibiotics.
• Nearly all strains of Staphylococcus infection in
the US are now resistant to penicillin.
• More than 2 MM patients get infections in the
hospital, and that more than 70% of bacteria
causing hospital-acquired infections are resistant
to at least one antibiotic commonly used to treat
them.*
*CDC website data.
Bioaerosol risks
*B.P.Jackson, et.al., Fate of Arsenic Compounds in Poultry Litter upon Land Application, 2006
D. Rutherfold, et.al., Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter, 2003
Arsenic in Manure
and Litter
*B.K.Anderson, et.al., Effect of Dietary 3-Nitro-4-Hydroxyphenylarsonic Acid on Total Broiler Excreta and
Broiler Litter, 2003.
**K.E.Nachman, et.al., Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions, 2005.
***Y-X.Li, et.all, Emissions of Additive Arsenic in Beijing Pig Feeds and the Residues in Pig Manure, 2005.
****Harrison, E.Z., et.al., Land Application of Sewage Sludges: an Appraisal of the US Regulations, 1999
Are Arsenic Regs
Adequate?
• Manure applications can result in soil accumulations of
arsenic and heavy metals, but manures are not regulated
for these substances.
• US EPA Part 503 standard allows 41 mg/kg of arsenic in
sewage sludge applied to land, assuming a soil/sludge
mixture results.*
• New York soil cleanup goal is 7.5 mg/kg.**
• Florida residential soil limit is 2.1 mg/kg, assuming
ingestion by children. Colorado and Illinois residential
soil limit is 0.4 mg/kg.**
• Grazing cattle can ingest up to 18% of their dry matter
intake as soil; and sheep ingest up to 30% soil during
grazing.*
*E.Z. Harrison, et.al., Land Application of Sewage Sludges: an Appraisal of US Regs, 1999
**T. Townsend, et.al, unpublished notes on Arsenic soil limits, 2007
Arsenic Pollution from
Chinese Hog Farms
• Study of manure application from hog farms
showed arsenic in potato crop soils ranged from
25.8-55.5 mg/kg, in rice paddy soils ranged from
15-23 mg/kg, and in fish pond sediment ranged
from 30-45 mg/kg, compared to the national
maximum allowable arsenic in soil standard of 15
mg/kg.*
• Sweet potato, rice and fish fatty tissue uptake from
these soils was significant, with higher uptake
correlating with higher soil levels.*
*Wang, Fu Min, et al. “Investigation on the Pollution of Organoarsenical Additives to Animal Feed in the
Surroundings and Farmland near Hog Farms”, 2006.
Copper in Hog Feed*