The Digestive System

Chapter 25
Function of the Digestive System

 To break down food into a “usable”

(absorbable) form
 To supply our cells with the nutrients they
need for energy, growth & repair
Organs of the Digestive System
 Gastrointestinal tract (GIT) – continuous
passageway which contains the food from the time
it enters the body, until it leaves; organs include:
 mouth (oral cavity), pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

 Accessory organs - participate in digestive

processes; organs include:
 teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder,
pancreas
 Processes of Digestion
1. Ingestion
2. Movement along GIT
 Voluntary – e.g. swallowing
 Involuntary – e.g. peristalsis
3. Secretion – release of water, enzymes, acids,
buffers, mucous, etc. into GIT for physical
(mechanical) & chemical digestive processes
 Processes of Digestion
4. Digestion

 Mechanical processing – physical breakdown

of food; e.g. mastication, emulsification, mixing
waves, segmentation
Chemical digestion – chemical breakdown of
food; disassembling of organic molecules into
their component parts; requires enzymes
 carbohydrates  disaccharides 
monosaccharides
 proteins  amino acids
 lipids  fatty acids & monoglycerides
 Processes of Digestion

5. Absorption – movement of nutrients from GIT into

blood capillaries (monosaccharides, amino acids,
H2O, vitamins, minerals) or lymphatic capillaries
(fatty acids)
6. Excretion (Defecation) – removal of waste
products from GIT
 Histology of the GIT
4 layers of tissue surround the
lumen of the GIT  epithelium – stratified squamous or simple
Mucosa columnar
 lamina propria – loose CT
 muscuaris mucosa – smooth muscle

Submucosa
Loose CT with
BV’s, nerves &
lymphatics

Muscularis externa
Skeletal muscle at beginning & end of
GIT, smooth muscle (inner circular;
outer longitudinal layer) from lower
esophagus to rectum

Serosa (a.k.a.
viseral peritoneum)
 Peritoneum & Mesenteries
 The abdominal cavity is lined with parietal
peritoneum & many of the organs within are
covered with visceral peritoneum
 Folds of peritoneum called “mesenteries” attach
some organs to others
 greater omentum
 lesser omentum
 mesentery proper
 mesocolon
 Mouth (oral cavity)
 Regions include the vestibule & oral cavity proper
 Roof comprised of hard & soft palate; floor primarily comprised of
tongue
 Mucosa of stratified squamous epithelium
(non-keratinized)
 Joins to the oropharynx at the fauces
Tongue –
 stratified sqamous epith. over skeletal muscle
 intrinsic & extrinsic muscles
 papillae
 filiform
 fungiform
 circumvallate
taste buds
 Salivary glands –
secrete saliva – made
of H2O, salts &
“salivary amylase”

Parotid
Parotid duct gland
Sublingual
gland
Submandibular duct
Submandibular
gland
Teeth – involved in “mastication”
 2 sets of teeth – deciduous & permanent
 4 types of teeth – incisors, cuspids
(canines), bicuspids (premolars), molars
Parts of a tooth –
 crown – dentin surrounded by
enamel, has hollowed pulp cavity
filled with CT pulp
 neck – at gingival border
 root – within mandible & maxilla,
has hollowed root canal with BVs
& nerves, root canal opens at
apical foramen
Pharynx
Common passageway for air & food
 oropharynx & laryngopharynx lined with
stratified squamous epithelium (nasopharynx
lined with PSCC)
 uvula & epiglottis protect airway when
swallowing (“deglutition”)

nasopharynx

uvula

oropharynx
epiglottis

laryngopharynx
 Esophagus
 muscular tube running from pharynx, posterior to trachea, down thoracic
cavity, through “esophageal hiatus” of diaphragm, to lower esophageal (a.k.a.
cardiac) sphincter at junction of stomach
 functions in “deglutition” through action of peristalsis
 mucosa is stratified squamous epithelium
 variations in muscularis externa – begins as skeletal muscle at upper 1/3,
mixed skeletal & smooth muscle in middle, smooth muscle by lower 1/3
 Stomach - Gross Anatomy

Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter

Pyloric sphincter
Stomach - Histology
Rugae – folds of mucosa & submucosa to allow
for expansion of stomach

Mucosa of simple
columnar epithelium with
mucous cells

Gastric pit leading to

gastric glands
Stomach – Histology (cont)
- Secrete mucus to protect
epithelial cells from enzymes
& acid

- Secrete HCl (for protein

digestion) & intrinsic factor
(for B12 absorption)

- Secrete pepsinogen which

gets converted to “pepsin”
when mixed with HCl; for
protein digestion
Entero- - Secrete gastrin to regulate
stomach emptying
 Stomach
 Modifications in stomach include 3 layers of smooth
muscle in muscularis externa – outer longitudinal, middle
circular, innermost oblique layer
 Functions of stomach include
 temporary storage of food
 mechanical breakdown of food to “chyme” through
powerful mixing waves
 intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption
 start of chemical digestion of proteins –

pepsin
proteins HCl
polypeptides
 Small Intestine - Anatomy
- connects stomach to large intestine; 15-20’ long; 1” diameter; held
together in abdominal cavity by “mesentery proper”
- site for completion of chemical digestion & absorption of nutrients
- comprised of three regions:
Duodenum – 10” in length;
receives chyme from
stomach, secretions from
liver, gallbladder & pancreas

Jejunum – 8’ long; most

digestion & absorption
occurs here

Ileum – 12’ long; connects to

cecum of large intestine at
iliocecal valve (sphincter)
 Small Intestine
Modifications in mucosa & submucosa of intestinal wall designed to
increase functional surface area:

 Plicae circulares (circular folds) –

large transverse ridges; most abundant in
jejunum
 Villi – small finger-like projections of
mucosal folds across surface of intestine
Plicae
circulares
 Small Intestine
Intestinal crypts Villi
containing
intestinal glands

 Villi lined with “absorptive cells” - mucosal epithelium of simple columnar

epithelium with microvilli “brush border”
 Submucosa of each villus contains a capillary network & a “lacteal”
(lymphatic capillary) for absorption of nutrients
 Intestinal glands within intestinal crypts secrete “intestinal juice” – provides
watery medium to keep enzymes & digestive products in solution for help
with absorption
 Pancreas  Retroperitoneal elongated
organ
 Both endocrine (pancreatic
islets of Langerhans –
Stomach secretes insulin & glucagon)
& exocrine gland (pancreatic
acini – secretes pancreatic
Tail juice)

Body

Head
Duodenum Pancreatic
duct
 Pancreas
Pancreatic juice – mixture of enzymes & buffers (sodium
bicarbonate) secreted by acinar cells into pancreatic duct &
released into duodenum
 pancreatic amylase
Starch maltose
 lipase
Lipids fatty acids + monoglycerol
 proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase)
Proteins & polypeptides small peptides
tri & dipeptides
 nucleases – digest RNA & DNA
 sodium bicarbonate – neutralizes acidic chyme
because enzymes in small intestine need an alkaline pH
Liver - Anatomy
 Largest organ within the body
 Comprised of 4 lobes:
 Large right & left lobes divided by falciform ligament;
small caudate (by IVC) & quadrate (by gall bladder ) lobes
 falciform ligament continues at inferior margin as
ligamentum teres (round ligament) (remnant of umbilical
vein)
 Lobes of liver functionally divided into microscopic lobules
 Liver - Histology
 Lobules comprised of rows of Hepatocytes arranged radially around a
central vein
 Hepatocytes surround blood sinusoids (capillary structures) which are
partially lined with phagocytic Kupffer (aka stellate reticuloendothelial) cells
hepatocytes central vein sinusoids
 Liver
 Hepatocytes produce bile, which gets secreted into bile
canaliculi of lobule
 Bile canaliculi merge to form bile ducts which eventually
merge to create the right & left hepatic ducts
 Liver & gall bladder
 Right & left hepatic ducts unite to form common hepatic duct
which merges with cystic duct of gall bladder to form common
bile duct which joins with pancreatic duct & enters the
Right hepatic duct Left hepatic duct
duodenum
 Gall bladder – hollow
muscular sac under right lobe
of liver; stores &
concentrates bile; releases
bile through cystic duct

 Bile released into duodenum

functions in emulsification of lipids,
absorption of fats (due to presence
of bile salts), & excretion of bilirubin
 Pancreatic & bile ducts
Common bile duct
Accessory Stomach
pancreatic duct

Tail

Body

Head Pancreatic
duct
 Liver - Functions
The liver has over 200 functions including (but not limited to):
 Bile production & excretion
 Metabolic regulation –
 storage of glycogen, fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins &
minerals
 interconversion of nutrients (“gluconeogenesis”)
 detoxification & removal of drugs, toxins & hormones
 hematological regulation –
 phagocytosis of worn-out RBCs, bacteria & other
pathogens
 synthesis of plasma proteins
 Blood Supply to Liver
In order for the liver to perform all of its functions, it receives
blood through 2 vessels:
 Hepatic artery - delivers oxygenated blood into sinusoids of
liver
 Hepatic Portal vein – delivers de-oxygenated, nutrient-rich
blood from digestive organs to sinusoids of liver

Liver uses O2 & nutrients within blood of sinusoids & then blood
drains into central veins of lobule which merge to form the
hepatic veins, which drain into the IVC
 Large Intestine
- Begins at the ilium & ends at the anus; 5’ long; 3” in diameter
- main functions – H2O reabsorption; absorption of some vitamins & minerals;
formation & temporary storage of fecal material
- no chemical (enzymatic) digestion
but some bacterial
Transverse
colon - 3 regions: cecum, colon, rectum
Hepatic (rt. Splenic (lt. colic)
Colic) flexure flexure

Ascending
colon
Descending
colon

ileum
Ileocecal sphincter
Rectum
Cecum Anal canal

Sigmoid colon
Vermiform appendix Internal anal
Rectum sphincter
Rectum
Anal canal External anal Anus
sphincter
 Large Intestine
Modifications in muscularis externa & serosa –
 longitudinal muscle layer forms bands called “taeniae coli” which create puckers
known as “haustra”
 serosa forms “epiploic appendages”

haustra

taeniae coli

epiploic appendages

THE END (literally!)