SEKOLAH BERASRAMA PENUH INTEGRASI GOPENG

PREPARED BY :-
MUHD FAZLI BIN DOLLAH
 CONCEPT MAP OF CHAPTER 2
LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT

LOCOMOTION & SUPPORT IN

SUPPORT IN PLANTS
HUMANS & ANIMALS

TYPES OF Muscles, ligaments TERRESTRIAL

LOCOMOTION AQUATIC PLANTS
SKELETON & tendon PLANTS

Hydrostatic skeleton
Birds

Exoskeleton
Fish

Endoskeleton Grasshopper

Appendicular
Axial skeleton skeleton Earthworms
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
 To explain the necessity for support and locomotion
in humans and animals,

 To describe problems that could be faced by humans

and animals in support and locomotion,

 To explain how problems in support and locomotion

are overcome in humans and animals,

 To name the bones that make up the axial skeleton

and appendicular skeleton of the human body
 The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals

WHY DO HUMANS & ANIMALS

NEED SUPPORT?
1. To find the food
2. To find partner for mating
3. To protect/escape from their
predator
4. To shelter from bad environment
 The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
 Without support, animals & humans would not
be able to maintain their body shape  their
body collapse under the weight of their own
tissues.

 Support are provided by some form of skeleton.

 Hydrostatic skeleton
 Exoskeleton
 endoskeleton
 HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
 A fluid-filled internal body cavity in which
the fluid is held under pressure  maintaining
the body shape & providing support for
internal organ

 The cavity is surrounded by muscles arranged

in layers.

 The body shape of the animal changes as these

muscles contract & relax.
 The animals are soft & flexible, the hydrostatic fluid
does protect body parts by acting as a shock
absorber.
 Examples : earthworm, jellyfish, leech & caterpillar.
 EXOSKELETON
 A rigid outer covering usually made up of
protein, chitins &/@ calcium salt.

 Insects – the cuticle (covered with wax to

prevent water loss from the body), cover the
body’s surface.

 The exoskeleton is jointed / hinged = certain

points of the skeleton are flexible & can bend
 enabling the movement.
 Exoskeleton restrict the growth of animals 
the exoskeleton must be shed from time to
time in order for the animal to grow. ( ecdysis)

 Also found in the shells of molluscs & the

bony plates of tortoises.

 Examples : insects, crabs, lobsters, tortoise

 ENDOSKELETON
 Found in the bodies of all vertebrates
including fish, amphibians & birds.

 Consist of hard skeleton of bones & cartilage

found inside the body – made up of calcium &
phosphate.

 Works with the muscular system to perform

movement & locomotion. It support the body
& protects the organs.
 The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
 The functions of skeleton :
 Provide shape & support
 Enables movement (locomotion)
 Protects internal organs
 Stores calcium & phosphate ions
 Produces blood cells
 A firm base for the attachment of muscles
 The Necessity for Support &
Locomotion in Humans & Animals
Problems that could be faced by humans and
animals in support and locomotion,
 gravitational force, friction & resistance when
moving around
 Aspect need to be considered when describing the
locomotion of an animal :-
 Stability – when it moves, it is temporarily unstable,
but its stability will be restored when it stops.
 Support – must have enough support from its body’s
skeleton
 Propulsion – must be propelled in order to move
 HOW TO OVERCOME THE
PROBLEMS?
 RESISTANCE & FRICTION – by
streamlining their bodies.

 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE – most animals

have their own supporting structures (fins –
fishes, wings – birds & strong limbs –
tetrapods & humans)  provide the propulsive
force to overcome the problem
 The skeletal system together with its
muscles are designed specially to overcome
the problems associated with support &
locomotion of humans & animals.

 To initiate locomotion, the force required is

generated by contraction of muscles,
whereas the movement is transmitted by
the skeleton.
THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
 The adult human skeleton consist of 206 bones.

 Divided into two main parts : the axial skeleton

& the appendicular skeleton.

 The axial skeleton : made up of the bones that

form the vertical axis of the body.

 It supports & protects the organs of the head,

neck & trunk. (skull, vertebral column, rib cage)
 The appendicular skeleton : made up of the
bones that are attached to the axial skeleton.

 Include bones of the limbs, the pectoral

girdle & the pelvic girdle.
 FUNCTION OF THE
SKELETON
 PROTECTION – the skull protects the brain,
the vertebral column protects the spinal cord &
the rib cage protects internal organs such as
the heart.

 SUPPORT – act as a framework to support

the soft body parts, to maintain the upright
position & to keep the body stable.
 FUNCTION OF THE
SKELETON
 MOVEMENT – bones interact with the
skeletal muscle.

 BLOOD CELL FORMATION – most of the

blood cells are formed in the bone marrow of
the long bones.

 MINERAL STORAGE – bones act as a

reservoir for calcium & phosphorus.
 SKELETAL SYSTEM
HUMAN SKELETON

AXIAL SKELETON

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

SKULL VERTEBRAL COLUMN RIB CAGE PECTORAL GIRDLE

PELVIC GIRDLE
CERVICAL

THORACIC FORELIMB BONES

LUMBAR HINDLIMB BONES

SACRUM

COCCYX
 THE SKULL
 Made up of 8 cranial bones & 14 facial
bones including the upper jaw & the
lower jaw.

 The facial bones also provide support &

protect the entrances to the respiratory
system.
 SKULL

PARTS FUNCTIONS
8 Cranial bones  Are fused to form immovable joints called
sutures.
 Protect the brain & the sensory organs.

Eye sockets  to protect the eye ball.

Nasal bones  to support nose tissues
Ear holes  to protect inner part of ears
Maxilla (upper jaw)  to support upper teeth
Mandible (lower jaw)  to support lower teeth, to enable eating & talking.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 Known as the spine/ backbone.

 Extends from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle.

 Made up of 33 vertebrae separated from each other by discs

of cartilage (intervertebral discs) which absorb shocks &
serve as flex point.

 This S-shaped column supports & balances the body in a

vertical plane & protects the spinal cord, supports the skull
& provides a base for the attachment of muscles to the back.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 The vertebrae differ in structure & function in
different regions of the vertebral column.

 A vertebra typically consists of a main body

(the centrum), a neural arch & transverse
processes.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
STRUCTURE FUNCTION

NEURAL SPINE Provides surface for attachment of

ligaments & muscles.
TRANSVERSE Provides surface for attachment of
PROCESS ligaments & muscles.

NEURAL ARCH/ Protects the spinal cord.

VERTEBRAL
FORAMEN
CENTRUM Provides support & absorbs shocks.

NEURAL CANAL Provides the passage of nerves from

the spinal cord.
ARTICULATING Provides surface which articulates
SURFACE with the next vertebra.
 TYPES OF VERTEBRAE
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Cervical Below the 7  1st one – atlas
Vertebra skull vertebra
 2nd – axis
vertebrae
 Large neural
canal/vertebral
foramen
 Short neural spine
 Flat centrum
 Short transverse
processes
 Has a pair of
vertebrarterial
canals
CERVICAL VERTEBRA
 THORACIC VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Thoracic Thorax 12  Neural canal/
Vertebra vertebral foramen
is smaller than
cervical
vertebra’s

 Long neural spine/

spinous processes
(for attachment of
back muscle)

 Thick & big

centrum

 Short transverse
THORACIC VERTEBRA (12)
 LUMBAR VERTEBRA
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE
Lumbar Waist 5  small neural
Vertebra canal/
vertebral foramen

 short neural spine

 thick & big

centrum

 long transverse
processes for
muscle attachment
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
 SACRUM & COCCYX
TYPE OF POSITION NUMBER OF MAIN CHARACTER
VERTEBRAE VERTEBRAE

Sacrum Pelvic 5 fused  Vertebrae fused to

region each other

 Has four pairs of

openings

Triangular shape
Coccyx Caudal 4 fused  Bones fused to
region each other forming a
triangular shape
which tapers at one
end
SACRUM & COCCYX
THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The rib cage consists
of 12 pairs of ribs
with the thoracic
vertebrae at the back
portion of the body &
join to the sternum
in the front portion.

 Movement of the rib

cage are brought
about by intercostal
muscles between the
ribs.
THE STERNUM & RIBS
 The sternum &
ribs enclose &
protect the
internal organs
(the lungs &
heart) & play an
important role
in breathing.
PECTORAL GIRDLE
 Consist of scapula &
clavicle.

 Links the upper limbs bones

to the axial skeleton.

 The scapula : bound by

muscles to the back of the
thorax. It is a flat,
triangular bone which
provides a surface for the
attachment of muscles.
 The clavicle : a rod-
shaped bone placed
horizontally above the
scapula.

 It links the scapula

to the sternum. It
limits the movements
of the scapula.
PELVIC GIRDLE
 Consists of 6 fused
bones – support the
weight of the body from
the vertebral column.

 Also protect the

internal organs –
urinary bladder &
reproductive organs.

 Made up of two halves,

each consists of 3 bones
(ilium, pubis & ischium)
PELVIC GIRDLE
 The pelvic girdle is
attached to the
sacrum of the
vertebral column.

 The asetabulum /
socket for femur
articulates with
each side of the
pelvic girdle at the
hip joint.
 FORELIMB BONES
 Consists of humerus,
radius & ulna.

 The Humerus :
 The long bones of the
upper arm
 Rounded head end fits
into an open socket of
the scapula  forming a
ball-and-socket joint
(allow movement in all
planes)
 The posterior end of
the humerus forms a
hinge joint with the
ulna with the ulna-
radius bones, allowing
movement in one plane
only.

 The radius & ulna :

 The bones on the forearm
in which the ulna is
longer than the radius.
 It has a notch at its
upper end which
articulates the humerus
at the elbow.
 The carpals :
 The bones that form
the wrist.
 Consists of 8 small
bones

 The metacarpals :
 The rod-shaped ones
that form the palm.

 The phalanges :
 The bones that form
the fingers.
 HINDLIMB

BONES
Consists of femur, tibia
& fibula.

 The femur :
 The longest, strongest &
heaviest bone in the body.
 Support the tight.
 Play an important role in
maintaining the body’s
upright position & in
locomotion as it is
attached to massive
muscles.
 The head of femur fits into
the pelvic girdle to form a
joint.
 Other end, articulates with
the tibia & fibula at the
knee.
 The tibia & fibula :
 The bones of the lower
leg.
 Support the shank.
 Tibia larger than
fibula & is the weight-
bearing bone of the
leg.
 Fibula is a long & thin
bone – not bear any
load  more important
for attachment of
muscles than for
support.
 Articulate with the
tarsals of the ankle.
 The tarsals :
 The 7 bones that form the
ankle.

 The metatarsals :
 The 5 rod-shaped bones
that form the foot.

 The phalanges :
 The bones that form the
toes.

 The patella/kneecap :
 A small rounded,
movable bone.
 Protect the knee joint.