The Global Electronics Industry: Worker and Community Health

The Global Electronics Industry
Worker and Community Health
Thomas H. Gassert, M.D., M.Sc.

December 2, 2005
Global Trend
Developed to developing nations shift (MNCs/TNCs/MNEs)

Labor intensive
Capital intensive
Export Processing Zones (FTZs, SEZs)
Tax breaks
Infrastructure
Labor
Other incentives
Value added
Transfer pricing
Host
Foreign exchange
Technology/Skills transfer
2 Dec 2005 THG The Global Electronics Industry 2

Global Trend
Growth – by 2000 there were nearly 1,000 chip fabrication plants globally with
hundreds of billions of dollars invested. The chip industry has been described
as “the pivotal driver of the world economy.” According to a spokesman for
the Semiconductor Research Association in Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, “…the world is seeing the largest industrial expansion in history,” in
reference to the growth of the electronics industry. More than a quarter of a
trillion chips are manufactured annually requiring the use of staggering
amounts of toxic chemicals, metals and gases.[i]
[i] Chepesiuk R. Where the Chips Fall: Environmental Health in the

Semiconductor Industy. Environmental Health Perspectives, 1999;107(9).
Some semiconductor manufacturers use well over 300 types of chemicals. HP

had MSDSs for over 3000 chemicals in the early 1980s. (Gassert, 1985)

Global Trend
Growth – in 2002, for the first time, more semiconductor chips were fabricated in
the Asia-Pacific region (28.7% of the 2002 world total) than in North America
(25.7%). Taiwan was a key growth area for chip fabrication in 2000, having
purchased 20% of all semiconductor manufacturing equipment sold worldwide
that year. China’s demand for chip purchasing was growing nearly 30% yearly in
2003. China is attracting a large volume of production in part because it provides
a greater rebate on value-added tax to companies that make their products in
China.[i]
[i] Tenenbaum DJ. Short-Circuiting Environmental Protections? Environmental

Health Perspectives, 2003;111(5);A278-83.

Global Trend
Outsourcing – The Electronics Manufacturing Services (EMS) industry serves

the original electronics manufacturing industry, and since the 1990s has taken
over some of the vertical in-house manufacturing structures of the older
electronics industry leaders. For example, Flextronics International Ltd., a US
company based in Singapore, is top ranked globally among EMS companies and
has expanded into China and Malaysia. The 50 biggest EMS companies
garnered 87% of the EMS sector’s global revenue of US$90 billion in 2003.[i]
[i] Ojo B, Johnson G. Top 50 EMS Companies. [Includes list of companies,

revenues, location, employees, products.] Electronics Supply and Manufacturing,
May 2004. www.my-esm.com.

Global Trend
Outsourcing – OEM companies (eg, Cisco, Dell, Hewlett Packard, IBM, Motorola)
the trend is outsourcing of R&D and production, including semiconductor wafer
fabrication.[i]
Outsourcing – Some congressional leaders are concerned about migration of US
multinational corporation chip production outsourcing to Asia and Europe,
especially China, as well as outsourcing of R&D. Of particular concern is retention
of skilled scientists and facilities for design and manufacture state-of-the-art
integrated circuits for military related applications.[ii]
[i] Tobak S. The OEM evolution. Electronics Supply & Manufacturing. September 9,
2004. www.my-esm.com.
[ii] Poletti T. Lieberman offers plan to stop migration of chip production. San Jose
Mercury News, June 2, 2003.

Global Trend
Mexico – Decline of the domestic electronics manufacturing sector it is argued was
due to weakness of foreign invested and local industry integration during the 1960s
and 1970s, something that could not be matched in places like Taiwan and later
China. In Mexico the maquiladoras were widely separated geographically mostly
along the US-Mexico border inhibiting creation of a critical mass of local suppliers.[i]
Mexico and Latin America – By the end of the 1970s, nearly all semiconductor and
transistor assembly operations had left Mexico for Southeast Asia, leaving mostly
electronic parts and product assembly.[ii] A similar decline of domestic electronics
industries was experienced elsewhere in Latin America.[iii]
[i] Lowe N, Kenney M. Foreign Investment and the Global Geography of Production: Why the Mexican
Consumer Electronics Industry Failed. World Development, August 1999;27(8):1427-43.
[ii] Scott A. The Semiconductor Industry in Southeast Asia: Organization, Location and the International Division
of Labor, Working Paper 101. Los Angeles: Institute of Industrial Relations, University of California, Los
Angeles, 1985 (as cited in Lowe N, Kenney M. Foreign Investment and the Global Geography of Production: Why
the Mexican Consumer Electronics Industry Failed. World Development, August 1999;27(8):1427-43.
[iii] Azpiazu D, Basualdo EM, Nocheff H. La Revolución Tecnológica y Las Políticas Hegemónicas: El Complejo
Electrónico en la Argentina. Mexico City: Legasa, 1988.

Global Trend
China – Rapid upgrading from low-cost consumer goods to high-technology items.

Information technology (IT) is key, i.e., personal computers, cell phones, handheld
computers, game consoles. An increasing proportion of manufacture is carried out
by subcontractors such as “multinational electronics manufacturing services (EMS)
firms form the United States such as Solectron or Flextronics, or Taiwanese
subassemblers operating under what is called an original design manufacturer
(ODM) model.” This is accomplished by transfer of chip making to China. Shanghai
area is hub for chip manufacturing, southern coastal Guangdong and Fujian for
mass production.[i]
China – In 2002, the US company Motorola Inc. initiated a program to make China
its global production and R&D center. American, European and Japanese
companies are queuing up. Intel, Philips, STMicroelectronics, Texas Instruments,
Analog Devices and others have set up R&D and production facilities in China.[ii]
[i] Luthje B. Why China Matters in Global Electronics. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental
Health. 2003;9(4):345-6.
[ii] Zheng TJ. China R&D goes into orbit. Electronics Supply & Manufacturing. November 1, 2004. www.my-esm
.com/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=51200882.

Global Trend
China – Four bases emerging for the semiconductor industry:

(1) Shanghai-led Yangtze River delta area highest concentration;
(2) (2) Bohai Sea region centered in Beijing and Tianjin with edge in R&D;
(3) (3) Zhujing River delta around Guangzhou and Shenzhen is largest
manufacturing and export base for information products;
(4) (4) Southwest (Chengdu) and Central (Xian) for chip fab and packaging.
It is anticipated that by 2010 China will be the second largest chip market after
the USA.[i]
[i] Chip: From China-made to China-created. People’s Daily, September

2004.

Global Trend
Fabless!
Fabless (without fab) refers to the business methodology of outsourcing the
manufacturing of silicon wafers, which hundreds of semiconductor companies have
adopted. Fabless companies focus on the design, development and marketing of their
products and form alliances with silicon wafer manufacturers, or foundries.
Hundreds of fabless companies are in business around the globe. The FSA has
identified and profiled more than 900 of these fabless companies, though and the
data changes constantly, with dozens of start-ups each quarter and numerous
acquisitions.
The largest concentration of fabless companies is in North America, followed by
Asia, Europe and Israel.
Fabless companies have grown faster, in terms of revenues, and maintained higher
average gross profit margins than any other segment of the semiconductor industry.

Global Trend
Percentage of
Fabless
companies
using these
foundries
UMC – United Microelectronics Corp. (Taiwan)

TSMC – Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Ltd. (Taiwan)
Hynix Semiconductor (South Korea)
Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing Ltd (Singapore)

Labor Unions
Virtually none – in any nation, including USA
IMF – Geneva
CWA
IBEW
Government controlled non-independent – rare

Employment
Women – In mid-1980s it was estimated that 90% of electronics assembly

workers in Southeast and East Asia were female, and in “Silicon Valley” in the
San Jose area of Calfornia more than 75% of production workers were female
and of these 40% Hispanic and Asian.[i]
[i] Chazkin W. Double Exposure: Women’s Health Hazards on the Job and at
Home. New York, Monthly Review Press, 1984.

Employment
China – Wage labor in China’s light manufacturing estimated at US$0.80 per hour.[i]
China – “In provinces such as Guangdong with thousands of electronics firms, the
official All-China Federation of Trade Unions does not have a direct presence in
foreign and Chinese electronics firms. As in the rest of the country, independent
unions are nonexistent.”[ii]
Malaysia – in 2000, electrical and electronics goods accounted for up to 72.5% of total
manufactured exports.[iii]
Malaysia – electronics industry is one of the largest employers, 343,000 workers,
majority women, in 1997.[iv]
Mexico – In summer 2002, a Phillips North America plant employing 600 employees
making computer monitors in Ciudad Juarez, closed and moved to Suzhou, China.[v]
[i] Luthje B. Why China Matters in Global Electronics. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2003;9(4):345-6.
[ii] Luthje B. Why China Matters in Global Electronics. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2003;9(4):345-6.
[iii] Malaysia. Eighth Malaysia Plan: 2001-2005. Kuala Lump0004, 2ur, Malaysia: Percetakan Nsional Malaysia Bhd.
[iv] Malaysia Industrial Development Authority (MIDA). Industry Brief April 1998. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: MIDA.
[v] Bacon D. Anti-China Campaign Hides Maquiladora Wage Cuts. January 27, 2003. dbacon@igc.org.

Employment
Japan – Flat-panel (liquid crystal) displays

Flat-Panel Display Technologies - Japan, Russia, Ukraine, and
Belaru
Large scale manufacturing of liquid crystal flat panel displays
(LCDs) by Japan…an enormous market potential … alternatives
to the cathode ray tube (CRT). The CRT is losing market share
to the solid-state flat panel display. Japan currently holds 90%
of the market. This book outlines opportunities in the former
Soviet Union, where companies with the necessary technology
are seeking partners, investment, and manufacturing
opportunities. Entire cities that were once not even on the map
due to their military mission, are now appearing, filled with
state-of-the-art electronic technology. The book is developed
from the reports issued by investigators based on their field
visits to 33 sites in Japan, and 26 sites in Russia, Ukraine, and
Belarus.

Raw Materials for Electronics
Source: Gassert T. Health Hazards in Electronics – A Handbook. Hong Kong: AMRC, 1985

Chemicals – Acids
ACIDS
Acids are corrosive substances widely used throughout the industry for cleaning,
etching, plating and stripping. They are usually in liquid or powder form. Most are
acutely hazardous, especially when concentrated. Acids can penetrate clothing
rapidly causing serious burns and damage to tissues beneath the skin. Protective
gear is essential, especially for the hands, face, eyes and lungs. All corrosives
should be labeled clearly with warning placards.

Inorganic Acids Organic Acids
aqua regia acetic acid

buffered oxide etch adipic acid
boric acid citric acid
chromic acid formic acid
hydrobromic acid lactic acid
hydrochloric acid oxalic acid
hydrocyanic acid
hydrofluoboric acid
hydrofluoric acid
nitric acid
phosphoric acid
sulfonic acid
sulfuric acid

Chemicals – Alkalis
ALKALIS (BASES)
Alkaline or base substances are used primarily for cleaning and scouring. Like acids, they are
acutely hazardous, especially in concentrated form. Most have strong caustic or corrosive
action, and as such should be clearly labeled with warning placards. Be sure to use protective
gear especially for the face, eyes, hands and lungs.

ammonia
ammonia persulfate
ammonium fluoride
ammonium hydroxide
calcium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide

Chemicals – Cryogenic Gases
CRYOGENIC GASES
Cryogenic means ultra-cold. These gases are usually stored in liquid form under
high pressure and are used to heat and cool ovens in the process of
semiconductor wafer fabrication. Some are used as "carrier" gases, carrying
dopants into the oven chamber. Hydrogen and oxygen are extremely flammable
(they ignite and burn very easily). These gases have a potential to explode and
thus require special storage and handling precautions. A major leak of liquefied
gas can rapidly fill the workroom displacing oxygen and causing sudden death
by asphyxiation.

argon
carbon dioxide
carbon monoxide
deuterium
helium
hydrogen
nitrogen
oxygen
ozone

Chemicals – Cyanides
CYANIDES
Cyanides are a group of highly irritating and rapidly acting poisons. They are used for cleaning,
electroplating and metallizing. Notice that most cyanide compounds (salts) contain a metal or
mineral molecule. The biggest risk is exposure to cyanide in gas form, although they are often
stored in solid or liquid form. Cyanide is quickly absorbed through the skin and lungs. It prevents
the body tissues from taking up oxygen causing sudden death by asphyxiation. Repeated low-
level exposure can cause severe dermatitis, thyroid disease, and muscle incoordination.
Another highly reactive and poisonous group distantly related to the cyanides are the
isocyanates which may be ingredients in some paints and which are known to cause asthma. Be
extremely careful with any cyanide compound, and always wear a proper respirator if the
process is not completely enclosed. Be sure cyanides are labeled clearly with warning placards.

calcium cyanide
copper cyanide
hydrocyanic acid
nickel cyanide
potassium cyanide
potassium ferrocyanide
sodium cyanide
zinc cyanide

Chemicals – Dopants
DOPANTS
Dopants are metal compounds in solid, liquid, or gas form, and are used to make chips. Dopants are sometimes
called impurities. They are usually injected as a gas or vapor into ovens which are heated to extreme
temperatures. When heated, the metal of the dopant is deposited in the semiconductor wafer, penetrating its
surface and giving it the ability to conduct electricity. The metals more commonly used in doping include
aluminum, antimony and arsenic. Boron and phosphorus are also commonly used. Dopants are considered to be
potentially the most hazardous group of chemicals used in electronics. Most are highly toxic. If a leak or rupture
occurs with a substance like phosphine, arsine, or the boranes, the whole factory and surrounding community can
be affected with many cases of serious harm and sudden death. Argon and deuterium are sometimes used as
carrier gases.
Gases Liquids Solids
arsenic pentafluoride antimony trichloride aluminum phosphorus
arsine antimony trioxide antimony phosphorus pentoxide
boron trichloride arsenic trichloride antimony trioxide selenium
boron trifluoride arsenic trioxide* arsenic tellurium
diborane boron tribromide arsenic trioxide tin
diethyl telluride boron trichloride beryllium zinc arsenide
dimethyl telluride boron trioxide* boron
hydrogen arsenide phosphorus oxychloride boron nitride
hydrogen phosphide phosphorus pentoxide* boron trioxide
pentaborane phosphorus tribromide cadmium
phosphine phosphorus trichloride chromium
phosphorus pentafluoride silicon tetrabromide gallium
selenium hexafluoride (* with a solvent) germanium
trichlorosilane

Chemicals – Fillers
FILLERS
Fillers are powders or tiny fibers added to resins (plastics, epoxies, glues,
paints) to give bulk, strength and form. They are durable and some resist heat,
fire and electricity. Asbestos and chromates cause cancer, and fiberglass can
cause serious lung problems if breathed in over a period of time. These
substances can also be highly irritating to the skin and eyes. Fillers are used to
make printed circuit boards and plastics. They are easily released as harmful
dusts when resin products are shaped, sawn, or drilled. Avoid breathing and
direct contact.

antimony trioxide
asbestos
chromate pigments
fiberglass
quartz
silica
titanium

Chemicals – Metals
METALS (and their compounds)
Ordinarily, people do not consider that metals are chemicals. But they are, and many can
be very harmful if swallowed or if breathed in in small unnoticeable amounts day after
day. Because metals are good conductors of electricity, they are widely used in
electronics. Metals are used or occur in many forms — as bulk solids, powders and liquid
solutions, suspended in gas form, and emitted as a fume when heated and as a dust
when drilled, sawn, or filed. Exposure to the more dangerous forms of metal (gases,
dusts and fumes) occurs more frequently during doping, soldering, plating, tinning and
other metal work.

aluminum lithium
antimony manganese
arsenic mercury
barium molybdenum
beryllium nickel
boron phosphorus
calcium platinum
chromium rhodium
chromates selenium
cobalt silver
copper tantalum
iron tellurium
gallium tin
germanium titanium
gold tungsten
indium vanadium
lead zinc

Chemicals – Oxidizers
OXIDIZERS
Oxidizers are highly reactive chemicals which can be used to clean or to render a metal surface
free from corrosion. During oxidation, oxygen (from the oxidizer or from the air) combines with a
metal or semiconductor surface to form a protective oxide layer. Some oxidizers have strong
corrosive action and care must be taken to protect the eyes, skin and lungs from exposure.
Oxidizers are also highly flammable and require special handling and storage arrangements.

ammonium persulfate
chlorine
chromic acid
ferric ammonium sulfate
hydrogen peroxide
iodine
nitrous oxide
oxygen
ozone
potassium iodide
silver nitrate
sodium persulfate

Chemicals – Resins
RESINS (epoxies, curing agents, plastics, photoresists)
There are many kinds of resins: plastics, epoxies, glues, adhesives, paints, waxes, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibers, and many others.
With the obvious exception of rosin (colophony) flux used in soldering, most resins used in electronics are man-made organic polymers.
Polymers are complex chemical substances. Most contain many poisonous ingredients, such as solvents, dyes, stabilizers, fillers,
plasticizers, catalysts and monomer residue. Some of these ingredients can cause allergies, asthma, birth defects and cancer. Polymers
are formed from monomers. Epoxides (epoxy resins) are normally cured with a phenol compound, and polyesters are cured with a
peroxide compound. Uncured epoxy resins or monomers are very toxic and penetrate the skin and lungs rapidly. After they are reacted,
cured, or "set" they are much less harmful, though dust created by shaping, cutting and drilling can be harmful. Resins are widely used in
electronics, particularly in making printed circuit boards, molding plastics, bonding, encapsulating and packaging, and are also used as
wire coatings and a variety of other electrical insulation materials. Resins can produce a wide variety of highly toxic vapors and gases
when heated or when burned. Fires caused by burning plastic are sometimes very difficult to control.
Epoxy Resins (Epoxides) Curing Agents (for Epoxies) Resin

diepoxybutane adipic acid Ingredients/Additives
diglycidyl ethers amines chlorinated diphenyls
epichlorohydrin anhydrides formaldehyde
trielthylene glycol diglycidyl ether 3,3’-dichlorobenzidine ethyl acrylate
diethyl amine ethylene imine
Monomers Polymers diethylene triamine fillers (see above)
acrylonitrile polyesters dimethyl amine isobutene
butene oxides polyethylene ethylene diamine isocyanates
ethylene oxide polystyrene ethylene triamine ketones
styrene oxide polytetrafluoroethylene maleic anhydride methyl methacrylate
vinyl chloride polyurethane methylene dianiline phenol
vinyl cyclohexane dioxide polyvinyl chloride MOCA styrene
silicones organic acids (see Acids above) toluene diisocyanate
phthalic anhydride xylene
phenols
piperazine

Chemicals – Semiconductors
SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are the basic raw material or substrate for making electronic
devices. They are treated with dopants and other chemicals to give them special
electrical capabilities. Semiconductor raw ingredients are made by chemical
companies which specialize in supplying chemicals to the electronics industry.

aluminum gallium arsenide
boron nitride
cadmium sulfide
gallium arsenide
gallium arsenide antimonide
gallium nitride
germanium
indium arsenide
indium nitride
indium phosphide
silicon

Chemicals – Solvents
SOLVENTS
Solvents are used in nearly every phase of electronics manufacturing. They are used primarily for cleaning and
degreasing, and for thinning plastics, resins, glues, inks, paints and waxes. There is a wide range of organic
solvents, some very toxic and others only mildly toxic. The sub-groups should be considered to have a better
idea of specific hazard risks and uses. The aromatic compounds and the chlorinated hydrocarbons are
perhaps the most dangerous groups of solvents since many of them are known to cause cancer and other
serious diseases.
acetone dichlorobenzene heptane pentane

amyl acetate, sec- dichloromethyl ether, a, a- hexamethyl disilazane perchloroethylene
benzyl chloride diglycidyl ether hexane petroleum spirits
bis(chloromethyl)ether dimethyl formamide hexanone, 3- phenol
butyl acetate, n- dioxane, 1,4- isopropyl alcohol phenol cyclohexane
butyl acetate, tert- ethyl acetate kerosene phenol glycidyl ether
butyl cellosolve ethyl alcohol methyl cellosolve propyl alcohol
butyl glycidyl ether, n- ethyl benzene methyl ethyl ketone stoddard solvent
carbon disulfide ethyl chloride methyl isobutyl ketone styrene
carbon tetrachloride ethyl ether methyl-2-pyrrolidone toluene
carbon tetrafluoride ethyl formate methylene chloride trichlorobenzene
cellosolve ethylene dichloride naphtha trichloroethane, 1,1,1-
cellosolve acetate ethylene glycol nitrobenzene trichloroethylene
chlorobenzene ethylidene chloride nonane trimethyl benzene
chloroform freons turpentine
chlorotoluene glycidyl ethers xylene
cresol glycidyl ether

Global Electronics Production Line
Source: Gassert T. Health Hazards in Electronics – A Handbook. Hong Kong: AMRC, 1985

Semiconductor Fab and Assembly
Semiconductor (wafer) production and fabrication:

•Ingot crystal growing (rarely in developing countries)
•Mounting ingots to rods and slicing to wafers (sometimes in developing countries)
•Wafer etching, lapping, annealing, grinding, sandblasting to clean polish mirror
•Photolithography, doping, metal deposition, testing

Semiconductor assembly:
•FOL: wafers diced, and dies attached, wired, bonded
•MOL: Encapsulation, forming, trimming, soldering, marking
•EOL: Testing, including electrical and memory, burn-in, visual inspection
Clean Room production – defined by airborne particle size

Wafer
Fabrication
Steps
Source: Gassert T. Health

Hazards in Electronics –
A Handbook. Hong
Kong: AMRC, 1985

Wafer
Fabrication
Steps

Wafer Fab – Photolithography

Wafer Fab – Doping
Boron – one less

electron than silicon
P-type area
Phosphorus – one
more electron
N-type area
Doping may be repeated 8 – 20 times on a single wafer.

Wafer Fab – Metal Deposition
After active (transistor) devices are formed, they are interconnected by applying
several layers of dielectric (insulating) metal patterns. Several metal layers may be
applied separated by dielectric layers. A final dielectric layer (passivation) is applied
to protect the circuitry. Tiny holes (“vias”) are drilled through the final dielectric to
the uppermost metal layer to permit metal pin and wire bond connections.

Semiconductor
Assembly

A Handbook. Hong Kong:
AMRC, 1985

Chip Assembly – Die Attach / Bonding

PCB
Fabrication

A Handbook. Hong Kong:
AMRC, 1985

PCB
Assembly

PCB Assembly – Solder Chemicals
Solders By-Products Solders are usually heated only

slightly above their melting
Lead-silver  Lead oxide
point to protect delicate
Tin-lead  Lead oxide components, thus usually below
the temperature (< 400°C) at
Zinc cadmium  Cadmium oxide, which significant formation of
zinc oxide metal oxide fume is generated.
Zinc-aluminum  Zinc oxide The major danger is in
overheating and in handling,
Zinc with HCl  Zinc chloride brushing, scraping, or abrading
flux solder residues, and improper
Some solders  Mild acids, removal of lead dross from
ethylene glycol wave soldering equipment.
SAC (SnAgCu) is thought to be
the most desirable non-lead
solder for modern applications.

PCB Assembly – Solder Flux
Flux By-Products
When heated, a flux will release acid vapors
and possibly formaldehyde, a decomposition Abietic acid
product of resin fluxes.
When vapors of formaldehyde are inhaled Acetone
along with vapors of hydrochloric acid, the two
Aliphatic aldehydes
chemicals react to form bis(chloromethyl)ether (formaldehyde)
(BCME), a potent lung carcinogen in humans.
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Di-terpene acids
Ethane
Methane
Methyl alcohol

PCB Assembly – Solder Flux Asthma
Asthma from rosin flux

In England a medical investigation was done of
152 women solderers in the electronics assembly
industry who were all exposed to rosin (colophony)
solder flux fumes because of inadequate or non-
existent local exhaust ventilation. The study found
that 49% had asthma-like symptoms of persistent
wheeze or chest tightness and, of the 152 women,
24% were diagnosed with work-related asthma.
This study confirmed prior studies of asthma
caused by rosin solder flux.
Irritant health effects and lung problems among electronics soldering workers in India
In India, 1,770 workers in the electronics industry were studied. Respiratory symptoms and lung
impairment rates were significantly higher in workers exposed to soldering fumes. A high prevalence
of congested or inflamed throat was also related to chemical exposure, especially among solderers and
workers exposed to metal oxides. Eye irritation symptoms were also related to chemical exposure.

Source: Mathur N, Gupta BN, Rastogi SK, et al. Socioeconomic and health status of electronics workers employed in organized industry. American Journal of Industrial
Medicine, 1993;23(2):321-31.

Electroplating
Electroless plating – Metal (e.g., copper) plating of PCB using reducing

chemical such as formaldehyde instead of electrolysis (electric current).

Deaths
Thailand – On February 1, 2002, a factory floor collapse killed 7 women workers

and injured 57 other workers at Delta Electronics (Thailand), a Thai-Taiwanese
joint venture company at Bang Pu industrial estate in Samut Prakan province 25
miles south of Bangkok. The reinforced concrete platform caved in under the
weight of 16 heavy duty air conditioners, each weighing 600 kilograms.[i]
[i] Asian Network for the Rights of Occupational Accident Victims (ANROAV)
Report, 20 February 2002; Bangkok Post, 6 February 2002.

Arsine Deaths and Overexposures
USA – Arsine gas. On June 14, 1982, a technician was killed by arsine while replacing
an arsine gas cylinder near ion implantation equipment at MIT’s Lincoln
Laboratories in Bedford, Massachusetts. On June 19, 1984, a technician died similarly
at M/A-Com in Burlington, Massachusetts.[i]
[i] Wald PH, Becker CE. Toxic Gases Used in the Microelectronics Industry. In LaDou J, editor, The
Microelectronics Industry – Occupational Medicine State of the Art Reviews. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc.,
1986;1(1):105-17.
USA – A Fremont, California, plant operated by American Xtal Technology (AXT)

was cited by Cal/OSHA for “willful” overexposure of employees to airborne arsenic
at level four times the legal limit in 2000. The plant subsequently moved operations
to China.[i]
[i] Thompson C. The AXT Way. East Bay Express, March 24, 2004.

Amputations
China – loss of fingers and hands among workers operating machines in a

computer case making factory.[i]
[i] Fung KL. Occupational Safety and Health in China. Hong Kong Christian
Industrial Committee report at the Mekong Region OSH Workshop, November
2000, as printed in Asian Labour Update. Asia Monitor Resource Center, Hong
Kong; Issue 39, April-June 2001, page 13.

Illness and Injury Trends – USA
USA – In 2000, occupational illnesses accounted for 12.7% of all reported illnesses and
injuries in US manufacturing industries, and illnesses in the US semiconductor and
related device industries the rate was 22.5%.[i]
[i] US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2000

Illness and Injury Trends – Global
Global – Lack of studies and statistics on occupational illnesses and injuries in

electronics industry is in part due to:
•Shifting geographic investments and growth with decentralization (from vertical

to horizontal outsourced integration)
•Lack of trade unions and effective health and safety committees
•Lack of, or lack of enforcement of, OSH and EP regulations
•Export of hazardous industries and materials
•Semiconductor business owners have clout, prestige industry, keystone industry

for industrialization and modernization, expensive, want to keep clean image and
remain competitive globally while attracting high-volume quantity and high-end
quality production technology.

Musculoskeletal
Malaysia – Prevalence of musculoskeletal pain complaints in 906 non-pregnant women
semiconductor workers employed in direct production for at least one year in 18 (3
wafer processing, 15 assembly) factories in peninsular Malaysia surveyed from July
1999 to March 2000. 48% were involved in end-of-line semiconductor assembly and 5%
in parts assembly. 20% were inspecting, 12.3% were doing other manual handling
tasks. 9.5% were in wafer processing. 57% had fully automated tasks, but had to load
and unload and operate equipment. Major ergonomic exposure was moving
hands/wrists (68.8%), followed by standing (55.1%) and lifting with hands (51.2%).
Cross-sectional self-administered questionnaire survey of subjective symptom
reporting.
Overall prevalence of body pain reported by 80.5% of participants. Lower-limb pain
was significantly associated with prolonged standing; neck/shoulder pain with sitting
and lifting. End-of-line assembly workers had significantly higher odds ratios for pain
at all m/s sites. Prolonged standing (> 4 hours) was experienced by 54% of the workers
surveyed, 52% of whom reported lower extremity pain. 20.3% had pain in hands and
wrists. Weaknesses included selection bias and lack of objective measures.[i]
[i] Chee HL, Rampal KG. Work-related Musculoskeletal Proglems among Women Workers in the Semiconductor
Industry in Peninsular Malaysia. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2004;10(1):63-71.

Musculoskeletal
Cross-sectional study of prevalence of musculoskeletal pain complaints among 903

women electronics assembly workers in 5 semiconductor plants in Malaysia and
Singapore in mid-1980s. Back and shoulder pain was most prominent, followed by
hand/wrist pain.[i]
Cross-sectional study of prevalence of musculoskeletal pain complaints among 61
electronics assembly workers revealed overall body pain complaints of 62% and 76%
in two factories in Malaysia. Highest prevalence of specific body part pain was low
back (30%) and upper back (18%).[ii]
[i] Lin V. Health, Women’s Work, and Industrialization: Semiconductor Workers in Singapore and Malaysia. New
York and London, U.K.: Garland Publishing, 1991.
[ii] Tan GLE. Ergonomics in manufacturing industries in Malaysia. Education and Training, Small Industries,
Countries in Transition, Theories and Methodologies, Miscellaneous Topics (Vol. 7). Proceedings of the IEA ’97
Trienniel Congress of the International Ergonomics Association 1997, June 29 – July 4; 160-2.4.

Musculoskeletal
Mexico – among 83 maquiladora electronics sector workers participating in a survey,

45% reported back pain, 30% wrist pain, and to lesser extent there were complaints
of neck, shoulder and arm pain. A significant proportion of those reporting that they
worked with chemicals were not provided Material Safety Data Sheets or safety
training.[i]
[i] Takaro TK, Arroyo MG, Brown GD, Brumis SG, Knight EB. Community-based
Survey of Maquiladora Workers in Tijuana and Tecate, Mexico. International
Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 1999;5(4):313-5.

Musculoskeletal
Egypt – Carpal tunnel syndrome risk factors study of 198 participant assembly and
clerical workers in a television assembly factory in Ismailia, Suez Canal Area. 81%
found to have probably CTS by H+P underwent electrodiagnostic studies. Electronics
assembly workers were more likely to report CTS (OR 11.4) than clerical workers.
Significant risk factors included longer work years (OR 1.11) and precision-type hand
grip (OR 6.5). The study suggests association between electronics assembly and CTS.[i]
[i] Abbas MF, Faris RH, Harber PI, et al. Worksite and Personal Factors Associated
with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome in an Egyptian Electronics Assembly Plant.
International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 2001;7(1);31-36.

Musculoskeletal
Thailand – Of 70 mostly women workers employed in several electronics factories in

the Northern Regional Industrial Estate just south of Chiangmai who completed the
questionnaire, 80% reported body aches and 60% reported eye problems such as
strain.[i]
[i] Theobold S. Gendered Bodies: Recruitment, Management and Occupational Health

in Northern Thailand’s Electronics Factories. In Whittaker A, editor, Women’s Health
in Mainland Sourheast Asia. The Haworth Press Inc., 2002; pages 7-26.

Musculoskeletal
Singapore – Study of 308 women electronics workers by Ministry of Labor of effects

of 12-hour shifts, fixed and rotating, found no significant health effects other than
decreased sleep hours and increased tiredness for rotating shift workers compared to
8-hour fixed shift workers, and no serious health problems for 12-hour shifts for
over a year.[i]

Singapore – Ministry of Manpower webpage shows example of electronics assembly
worker diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome.[ii]

[i] Chan OY, Gan SL, Yeo MH. Study on the health of female electronics workers on 12 hour shifts. Occupational
Medicine, 1993;43(3):143-8.
[ii] Occupational Health Department, Occupational Safety and Health Division, Singapore Ministry of Manpower:
www.mom.gov.sg/MOM/OHD/ar2002/wh_others2.htm

Solvent exposure
USA – NIOSH HHE first report of solvent overexposure in electronics sector at

FMC Corp., an integrated circuit manufacturer. Freon-11 during the cleaning of a
vapor degreaser equipment, and chloroform emissions in a mounting area.[i]
USA – NIOSH investigations of 3 companies manufacturing integrated circuits
revealed that a large percentage of employees were exposed to solvent vapors,
most at low levels.[ii]
[i] NIOSH (USDHHS) Health Hazard Evaluation #76-101-376. Broomfield, Colorado. FMC
Corporation. March 1977.
[ii] Pasquini D, Laird L. Hazard assessment of the electronic component manufacturing
industry. NIOSH Contract # 210-80-0058, Research Triangle Park, North Caroline, Research
Triangle Institute, 1982.

IC and Component Testing
Quality Assurance and Reliability Labs present exposure risks to workers who test
components and parts.[i] These include:
•Marking tests use a variety of solvents and corrosive mixtures in heated
beakers on hot plates. Fumes should be captured by local exhaust ventilation to
control emissions. Monoethanolamine vapors have been measured in excess of
TLV without adequate face velocity of LEV systems.
•Bubble/Leak tests use high molecular weight fluorocarbons (Flourinets®)
•Fine Leak detection tests use radioactive Krypton 85, a beta and gamma emitter
•X-ray Packaging Units – risk of x-radiation
[i] Baldwin DG, Williams ME. Chapter 4: Industrial Hygiene, in Bolmen RA (Ed.).
Semiconductor Safety Handbook - Safety and Health in the Semiconductor Industry. William
Andrew Publishing/Noyes, 1998; page 236.

Odors
[i] Baldwin DG, Williams

ME. Chapter 4: Industrial
Hygiene, in Bolmen RA
(Ed.). Semiconductor
Safety Handbook - Safety
and Health in the
Semiconductor Industry.
William Andrew
Publishing/Noyes, 1998;
pages 256-9.

Allergy and Asthma
UK – Rosin (colophony) flux fumes resulted in asthma in electronics assembly workers.
UK – 1993 study of 152 women solderers in mid-sized electronics firms, all exposed to rosin-solder flux
fumes because of inadequate or non-existent local exhaust ventilation. Of 152, 49% had persistent
wheeze or chest tightness, and 24% were diagnosed with occupational asthma.[ii]
Japan – Epoxy resins widely used for adhesives, coatings, molds and encapsulation. Acid anhydride
hardeners used as curing agents for epoxy resins are well known Type 1 allergens. Prospective study
of 2 electronics plants. Control upgrades were effective.[iii]
Finland – Evaluation of ethahexahydrophthalic anhydride (MHHPA), a hardener for hot-cured epoxy
resins used as insulators. Impregnation of coiled resistors and transfer to ovens caused the worst
exposures, and when the oven baken was over and the items removed they continued to emit MHHPA
during chilling. Exposure levels were found to be significant in adjacent work areas and offices.[iv]
[i] Burge PS, Porks WH, O’Brien IM, et al. Occupational asthma in an electronic factory: a case control study to
evaluate etiologic factors. Thorax, 1979;34:300-7.
[ii] Palmer K, Crane G. Respiratory disease in workers exposed to colophony solder flux fumes: continuing health
concerns. Occupational Medicine, 1997;47(8):491-6.
[iii] Matsumoto N, Yokota K, Johyama Y, Takakura T. The working environment control of anhydride hardeners from
an epoxy resin system. Sangyo Eiseigaku Zasshi, 2003;45(4):133-8 (Japanese).
[iv] Pfaffli P, Hameila M, Riala R, Tornaeus J, Wirnoila R. Exposure to methylhexahedrophthalic anhydride
(MHHPA) in two workplaces of the electric industry. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 2004;6(4):295-9.

Upper Respiratory Symptoms
India – 1,770 workers in the electronics industry studied. Respiratory symptoms and
impairment rates were significantly higher in workers exposed to soldering fumes. The
high prevalence of congested or inflamed throat was also related to chemical exposure
especially among solderers and workers exposed to metal oxides. Ocular symptoms and
signs were also related to chemical exposure.[i]
[i] Mathur N, Gupta BN, Rastogi SK, et al. Socioeconomic and health status of electronics workers
employed in organized industry. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1993;23(2):321-31.

Skin
Hydrofluoric acid burn

Malignant melanoma?
Dermatitis

Skin – Hydrofluoric Acid burn
Source: NIOSH

Skin – HFA burn
Solutions:
3% at etch station
50% in quartz furnace – high temp (1,000C) CVD or plasma etch
(with generation of carbonyl fluoride, the flurine version of phosgene)
contaminated effluents and pump oils
Problems:
dilute HF – delayed pain onset, thus higher risk of prolonged exposure
glove serves as occlusive dressing amplifying the exposure
Pathophysiology:
F is the most electro-(both hydro- and lipo-)-philic of the halogens
Deep tissue penetration – migrates deeply over hours
Binds not only to cell membs/elles but to enzymes of glycolysis – cell destruct
Clinical:
Non-blanching hypopigmentation, evolves to blue-gray discoloration
6-24 hours necrosis and deep ulcerations
pain slow to evolve with more dilute HFA concentrations
death occurs but is rare (2.5% TB with 100%HF, and 10% TB with 70%HF)
pulmonary edema with inhalation; cardiac and renal complications possible

Skin – HFA burn
Treatment of acute local exposure:

•Prompt removal and thorough cleansing with cold water at least 15 minutes
•Topical gel Calcium Gluconate 2.5% or Magnesium Sulfate sol. 25%
If treatment is delayed or PAIN develops or persists 45 min. after

gel:
•Inject CaG 5-10% solution using 25- or 30-gauge needle in, beneath, around
•For FINGERS, NEVER more than 0.5ml per finger as more leads to
pressure necrosis especially in presence of edema; elevate hand
•For other surfaces, 0.5ml/cm2 may be injected
•Repeat if pain does not fully resolve in 45 minutes
•Debride bullae completely; remove involved nails
•X-ray if bone involvement suspected
•Plastics Surgeon consult, esp if high conc HF, intra-arterial or IV CaG
•Monitor for risk of systemic fluorosis – cardiac, renal, pulmonary
Skin –HFA burn outcomes
Tenosynovitis
Flexion contractures
Neuropathies
Chronic pain
Disfigurement
Rarely death or limb loss
Permanent impairment/disability

Skin - Dermatitis
Nummular eczema
Organic solvents are among the most frequently used substance in industry.
Repeated skin contact leads to excessive dehydration of surface keratin and
eczema. In this worker, who habitually used an organic solvent for cleansing
purposes, the dermatitis appears as scattered, coin shaped concentrated
patches, commonly referred to as "nummular" eczema. [US NIOSH]

Skin – Epoxy Resins
Although completely cured resins are inert, the production and application of epoxy
resin system, with modifiers and hardeners that are frequently sensitizers, carry the
risk of both primary irritant and allergic reactions. This dermatitis on the eyelids - a
typical site for dermatitis from airborne substances - was caused by the vapor of an
amine hardener used in curing epoxy resins. [US NIOSH]

Cancer
Sweden – Cancer incidence in electronic industry based on Swedish Cancer
Environment Registry. Total cancer risk was modestly but significantly higher among
workers in electronics or electrical manufacturing industries. RR estimates were 1.15 for
men and 1.08 for women. Certain tumor sites had increased RRs, lung (1.52), bladder
(1.22) and malignant melanoma (1.35).[i],[ii]
[i] Vagero D, Olin R. Incidence of cancer in the electronics industry, using a new Swedish Cancer
Environment Registry as a screening instrument. British Journal of Occupational Medicine,
1983;40:188-92.
[ii] Vagero D, Ahlbom A, Olin R, et al. Cancer morgidity among workers in the telecommunications
industry. British Journal of Occupational Medicine, 1985;42:191-5.

Cancer
USA – For wafer fabrication work, after a comprehensive literature review of medical
toxicological aspects of several hundred chemicals, and of work processes involving
chemicals, a Scientific Advisory Committee, focusing on 26 identified carcinogenic
chemicals, found that there was no affirmative evidence currently (October 2001) or
historically to support contention of measurably increased risk for cancer in general or
of specific types of cancer.
The SAC also concluded that evidence was insufficient to conclude that chemicals and
other hazards in wafer fabrication have not or could not result in measurably increased
risk of one or more types of cancer.
The SAC recommended a comprehensive epidemiological investigation (beginning with
cohort with nested case control studies), and that ongoing health surveillance activities
be undertaken at all company locations with preservation of information.[i]
[i] Scientific Advisory Committee. Cancer Risk among Wafer Fabrication Workers in the
Semiconductor Industry. Report to the Semiconductor Industry Association. University of
Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts, October 15, 2001.

Table 1. Carcinogenic Potential of Materials Used in the Electronics
Industry
MATERIAL IARC SURVEY EVALUATION
OF CARCINOGENIC RISK TO
HUMANS*
Solvents
Benzene 1
Carbon tetrachloride 2B
Cancer Chloroform 2B
Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 3
Substances 1,4-Dioxane 2B
Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) 3
Trichloroethylene 3
Metals and Their Compounds

Arsenic and certain arsenic compounds 1
Beryllium and beryllium compounds 2A
Cadmium and cadmium compounds 2B
Chromium and certain chromium compounds 1
Nickel and certain nickel compounds 2A
Other Materials
Asbestos 1
p-Dichlorobenzene 3
Epichlorohydrin 2B
Formaldehyde (gas) 2B

Cancer
USA – The semiconductor industry blocked a US EPA / California DHS proposed study
in the late 1990s of cancer rates among electronics workers.[i]

USA – Concerns about cancer among workers in IBM semiconductor production
facilities in California, New York and Vermont.[ii]

UK – HSE study of cancer in semiconductor industry focused on plant in Greenock,
Scotland, called for further study but did not prove injury. Four types of cancers
identified in former National Semiconductor employees, with lung cancer in women
being the only one that was statistically significant, but which did not account for
smoking or lifestyle variables.[iii]
[i] Norr H. Chips a risky business. SFGate.com, March 18, 2002. www.sfgate.com.
[ii] Stranahan SQ. The Clean Room’s Dirty Secret. Mother Jones, April 2002.
[iii] United Kingdom Health and Safety Executive. Cancer Among Current and Former Workers at
National Semiconductor (UK) Ltd, Greenock, December 2001.

Cancer
Taiwan – RCA Taiwan stopped production in 1992 after 32 years. The Taiwan EPA
reported that RCA had dumped solvents and other hazardous chemicals resulting in
contaminated soil and water. In 1992, 20-30,000 employees were laid off. Some of those
and other former employees have complained of higher than normal rates of cancers. As
of 2001, among former RCA employees, more than 1,000 individuals were said to be
suffering from cancer and 216 were reported to have died from cancer. “According to
medical experts, the cancer rate for ex-RCA employees is between twenty and one
hundred times higher than other people.”[i]
[i] Self-help Association for RCA Employees Suffering from Cancer and the Taiwan Association for
Victims of Occupational Accidents and Diseases. RCA – The Unacceptable Face of Capitalism in
Taiwan. Asian Labour Update. Asia Monitor Resource Center, Hong Kong; Issue 39, April-June 2001,
page 7.

Reproductive Hazards
USA – As of 1986, no studies in medical literature, but cases of community water

contamination raised great concerns in California’s “Silicon Valley” area.[i]
USA – Glycol ether exposure associated with spontaneous abortion.[ii],[iii]
USA – Glycol ether studies (3) in the 1990s sponsored by industry were set narrow in
scope to look at spontaneous abortion rates and to the exclusion of other related matters
such as birth defects and cancers. Even follow-up studies on miscarriage were blocked
by the industry. But the findings of significantly increased spontaneous abortion rates
led to reduction or elimination of glycol ether from manufacturing process in the US.[iv]
[i] Rudolph L, Swan SH. Reproductive Hazards in the Microelectronics Industry. In LaDou J, editor, The
Microelectronics Industry – Occupational Medicine State of the Art Reviews. Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc.,
1986;1(1):135-43.
[ii] Correa A, Gray RH, Cohen R, et al. Ethylene glycol ethers and risks of spontaneous abortion and subfertility.
American Journal of Epidemiology, 1996;143:707-17.
[iii] Schenker MB, Gold EB, Beaumont JJ, et al. Association of spontaneous abortion and other reproductive effects
with work in the semiconductor industry. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 1995;28:639-59.
[iv] Norr H. Chips a risky business. SFGate.com, March 18, 2002. www.sfgate.com.

Radiation – RF
RF – Elevated exposure risk to radiofrequency radiation is most likely to occur around

or during maintenance of plasma etching equipment, and less likely around other RF
uses such as metal deposition (sputtering) and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor
deposition. Measures of RF exposures from these latter two processes have rarely
exceeded recommended levels.[i]
[i] Cohen R. Radiofrequency and Microwave Radiation in the Microelectronics Industry. In

LaDou J, editor, The Microelectronics Industry – Occupational Medicine State of the Art Reviews.
Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc., 1986;1(1):145-54.

Radiation – Lasers
Lasers – used for package marking, usually Class 4 carbon dioxide laser which requires
full enclosure containment, can cause fume emissions and residues on surfaces and
exhaust ventilation filters from the plastic and ceramic packaging being marked. Plastic
epoxy packages contain from 1%-5% antimony trioxide as a fire retardant, and some
ceramic packages contain beryllium.[i]
[i] Baldwin DG, Williams ME. Chapter 4: Industrial Hygiene, in Bolmen RA (Ed.). Semiconductor
Safety Handbook - Safety and Health in the Semiconductor Industry. William Andrew
Publishing/Noyes, 1998; page 236.

Most are low powered (Class 2 or 3A) helium-neon (He-Ne) lasers used for alignment purposes.
Typical fab equipment using these lasers includes some photolithographic steppers, wafer surface
scanners, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) equipment, and some aligners. Safety precautions these
lasers are minimal assuming collecting optics are not used in the system.
High-powered lasers are used in the semiconductor industry, including:
• Some He-Ne lasers (Class 3b) used for alignment purposes
• Deep UV lasers used as exposure sources in photolithography
• Neodymium-YAG (Nd:YAG) lasers used for operations such as deburring, trimming leads, mask
repair, and laser scribing
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser used for through-hole drilling of printed circuit boards, and marking
the exteriors of both plastic and ceramic IC packages
Except for certain R&D uses, these lasers are typically embedded in the equipment and have
interlocked cabinets that enclose the beam path and the point where the beam contacts the target.
This makes the lasers Class 1 during normal operations, but they are considered Class 3b or 4 lasers
when the safety interlocks are defeated. The most common operation where it is necessary to remove
the beam enclosures and defeat the interlocks is during alignment of the laser beam.[i]
[i] Baldwin DG, Williams ME. Chapter 4: Industrial Hygiene, in Bolmen RA (Ed.). Semiconductor Safety Handbook -
Safety and Health in the Semiconductor Industry. William Andrew Publishing/Noyes, 1998; page 315.

Lasers – Baseline and periodic medical (including eye) surveillance examinations are
required for Class 3b and Class 4 laser operators and maintenance workers.[i]
[i] American National Standards Institute (ANSI); Z136.1-1993, American National Standard for the
Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Florida: The Laser Institute of America, 1993.

Radiation – Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes – The most significant quantities of radioactive materials used in

semiconductor manufacturing are utilized in the fine leak detection testing of the
hermeticity of IC packages with krypton-85 radioactive gas. Because krypton is a gas,
the potential exists for leakage or discharge of the gas into the workroom or release
into the atmosphere.[i]
Case – Early 1980s in Malaysia – Explosion of Krypton-85 testing equipment

resulted in exposure of several workers to unknown levels of ionizing radiation.

Radiation – X-rays
Electrical equipment able to generate x-rays includes:
X-ray diffraction units, x-ray lithography sources, x-ray fluorescence units (e.g., Kevex
and UPA Fluoroderm), cabinet radiography units (e.g., Faxitron and Nicolet Mikron),
ion beam milling machines, and ion implanters.
These radiation machines produce x-rays either intentionally or incidentally to their
operation (e.g., ion implanters and ion beam milling machines). Most of these units are
designed such that detectable exposures to ionizing radiation are unlikely if the
equipment cabinets and doors are maintained in a tight fitting manner.
Some exceptions: Cabinet x-ray systems are used to check the thickness of metal
coatings and to identify defects (e.g., air bubbles in mold compound packages). While
typically not a significant source of leakage, these units need to be checked on a periodic
basis with a hand-held survey meter for x-ray leakage and to ensure door interlocks
operate properly.[i]
Publishing/Noyes, 1998; page 319.

Radiation - General

Operations with Potentially Significant Radiation Exposures[i]
Process Radiation Activity/Equip Maximum [Ref]
ment Exposure
Photolithography UV Lamp UV Radiation Not Listed [19]

Alignment
X-ray Lithography ——— X-ray & Neutron <5000 mR/yr [27]

Etching Plasma Etching RF Radiation >4.9 mW/cm2 [19][20]

Plasma Etcher RF Radiation 12.9 mW/cm2 [17][18]
Maint.

Ion Implantation Operating Lintott 3X X-ray Radiation >2 mR/hr [24]
Implanters

Metallization Operating Perkin- RF Radiation >4.9 mW/cm2 [19]
Elmer
4400 Series
Sputterers
Assembly and Test Betascope Sources Beta & Gamma >5 nCi * [19]
[i] Baldwin DG, Williams ME. Chapter 4: Industrial Hygiene, in Bolmen RA (Ed.). Semiconductor Safety Handbook -
Safety and Health in the Semiconductor Industry. William Andrew Publishing/Noyes, 1998; page 323-4.

Physical Extremes
Malaysia – 968 workers in semiconductor manufacturing. FOL (wafer dicing and

bonding in clean rooms) very cold, also in some EOL testing areas. Heat exposure was a
problem in molding processes and in burn-in testing areas. Noise was reported by the
highest proportion of workers (39.6%, but 29% dissatisfied), followed by cold (27.5%,
but 16% dissatisfied).[i]
[i] Chee HL, Rampal KG. Relation between sick leave and selected exposure variables among women
semiconductor workers in Malaysia. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2003;60:262-70.

Physical – Noise and Stress
In semiconductor fabrication – Not a major factor in most circumstances. Most noise is

from ventilation systems in clean rooms, and from utility equipment in utility areas.
Mexico – Maquiladora women workers compared (garments, electronics, service, no

laborforce history). Compared to other groups of workers, electronics workers had lower
incidences of nervousness and functional impediments (i.e., health problems that
interfered with performance).[i]
[i] Guendelman S, Silberg MJ. The Health Consequences of Maquiladora Work: Women on the US-
Mexican Border. American Journal of Public Health, 1993;83(1):37-44.

Attrition
Mexico – 20% of surveyed former maquiladora electronics workers said they left work
because of occupational health concerns that included exposures to chemical vapors or
solder fumes.[i]
[i] Cedillo Becerril LA, Harlow SD, Sanchez RA, Monroy DS. Establishing Priorities for Occupation
Health Research among Women Working in the Maquiladora Industry. International Journal of
Occupational and Environmental Health, 1997;3(3):221-30.

Absenteeism
USA – semiconductor worker absenteeism rate is twice as high as that of workers in

other manufacturing industries.[i]
Malaysia – Cross-sectional survey of production workers in 18 semiconductor
factories revealed that wafer polishing and parts assembly workers, and
semiconductor workers who complain of working in conditions of poor ventilation and
of smelling chemicals, had higher odds of taking sick leave. 31% of those surveyed
smelled chemicals at work. Marital status (married) was a significant predictor of use
of sick leave.[ii]
[i] Chepesiuk R. Where the Chips Fall: Environmental Health in the Semiconductor Industry.
Environmental Health Perspectives, 1999;107(9).
[ii] Chee HL, Rampal KG. Relation between sick leave and selected exposure variables among
women semiconductor workers in Malaysia. Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
2003;60:262-70.

Environmental Pollution
A wafer production facility can produce thousands of wafers a day. One source
estimate of the amount of chemicals and waste required to produce one 6-inch wafer:[i]
3,200 cubic feet of bulk gases
22 cubic feet of hazardous gases
2,275 gallons of deionized water
20 pounds of chemicals
285 kilowatt hours of electrical power
25 pounds of sodium hydroxide
2,840 gallons of waste water
7 pounds of various hazardous waste, including photoresist, pump oil, solvents,
contaminated wipes
[i] Electronic Industry Good Neighbor Campaign. The Bargaining Chip, January 1994 bulletin.

Environment – E-Waste
“E-waste” – as of 2001, growing by 3-5% annually, or 3 times faster than general

municipal waste growth; a large amount of industrialized nation e-waste is exported to
developing nations, especially China, India and Pakistan.[i]
“E-waste” – Average lifespan of a computer shrank from 5 years to 2 years by the end of
the 1990s. In 1998 estimates were 20 million computers became obsolete and overall e-
waste was about 6 million tons.[ii]
[i] Yáñez L, Ortiz D, Calderón J, et al. Overview of Human Health and Chemical Mixtures: Problems
Facing Developing Countries. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2002;110(6):901-9; citing The Basel
Action Network and the Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition, Exporting Harm, The High-Tech Trashing of
Asia, accessible at: www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/technotrash.pdf.
[ii] Yáñez L, Ortiz D, Calderón J, et al. Overview of Human Health and Chemical Mixtures:
Problems Facing Developing Countries. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2002;110(6):901-9; citing
NSC, Product Recovery and Recycling Baseline Report. Itasca, Illinois: National Safety Council, 1999.

Environment – Soil and Drinking Water
Japan – a series of incidents in the 1980s resulted in contamination of groundwater,

blamed on high tech industry.[i]
USA – Soil, groundwater and air emissions.[ii]
USA – “Silicon Valley”, California, 29 EPA Superfund toxic waste sites – more than
any other county in the US. More than 100 different chemical contaminants measured
in hazardous amounts in local drinking water. In the 1970s and 1980s, dozens of
drinking water wells for communities were shut down.[iii]
[i] Tenenbaum DJ. Short-Circuiting Environmental Protections? Environmental Health

Perspectives, 2003;111(5);A278-83, citing a book by Yoshida F, The Economics of Waste and
Pollution Management in Japan, 2002.
[ii] Himmelstein JS, Levy BS. Environmental Health Aspects of the Microelectronics Industry. In
LaDou J, editor, The Microelectronics Industry – Occupational Medicine State of the Art Reviews.
Philadelphia: Hanley & Belfus Inc., 1986;1(1):175-94.
[iii] Chepesiuk R. Where the Chips Fall: Environmental Health in the Semiconductor Industy.

Hazardous waste from obsolete products, including:

•Platinum in circuit boards
•Copper in transformers
•Nickel and cobalt in disk drives
•Barium and cadmium coatings on computer glass
•Lead solder on circuit boards and video monitor screens
It is estimated that in the 10 years from 1998 – 2007, 45 MILLION computers will be
junked.[i]
[i] Chepesiuk R. Where the Chips Fall: Environmental Health in the Semiconductor Industy.


In addition to its work on trade policy issues such as tariffs, the [World Semiconductor]
Council brings manufacturers together for concerted action on global environmental
issues. Chipmakers in the U.S., Japan, Europe, Korea, and Taiwan are working to cut
absolute emissions of perfluorocarbons – linked to global warming – to 10 percent below
1995 levels by 2010. Given the technological challenges, this is a significant commitment
to improve the environment.[i]
[i] Semiconductor Safety Association, World Semiconductor Council, EHS Taskforce, SIA
Backgrounder, October 6, 2004. www.sia-online.org/downloads/Issue_WSC_ESH.pdf.

Controls
Malaysia – A survey in 2000 of 136 high-tech companies revealed that 22 had not
established Health and Safety Committees. Of the remaining 124 committees, 45 were
said to “barely active” and 11 “inactive”.[i]
Europe – EU Directive RoHS, 2003: Restrictions on use of 6 hazardous substances u in
electrical and electronic equipment. The 6 substances are: mercury, lead, cadmium,
chromium, polybromide biphenyl, polybromide biphenyl ether.[ii]
Japan and China – Considering new rules to conform with EU’s RoHS Directive on
restriction of use of 6 chemical substances in electrical and electronic equipment.[iii]
[i] Tenenbaum DJ. Short-Circuiting Environmental Protections? Environmental Health Perspectives,

2003;111(5);A278-83, citing a report by the California Global Corporate Accountability Project,
Beyond Good Deeds, July 2002.
[ii] European Union Parliament Directive 2002/95 on the Restriction of the Use of Certain
Hazardous Substance in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS Directive), February 13, 2003.
Scheduled to go into effect July 1, 2006.
[iii] Aritake T, Smith NJ. Japanese Manufacturers to Discontinue Use of Lead, Mercury, Other
Substances. International Environmental Reporter, July 16, 2003;26(15).

Controls
USA – By 1995, a group of major chip manufacturers including IBM and Intel had
eliminated ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons from cleaning processes, and found
replacements for glycol ethers.[i]
USA – Trade industry (IPC) efforts to guide industry to produce lead-free and halogen-
free products (based on chlorine and bromine). Main concern about bromine is its use in
some flame retardant compounds. Goal to achieve lead-free production by EU RoHS
July 1, 2006 deadline.[ii]
[i] Tenenbaum DJ. Short-Circuiting Environmental Protections? Environmental Health Perspectives,

2003;111(5);A278-83.
[ii] http://leadfree.ipc.org and http://halogenfree.ipc.org

Controls – PPE – Respirators
Respirators – “…respirator usage within the semiconductor industry is normally

confined to emergency responses and some short duration maintenance operations where
other controls are not feasible or additional protection is desired including:
• Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) used during emergencies (e.g., major
chemical spills, toxic gas releases /air monitoring alarm conditions, or investigation of
“unknown odors”)
• SCBA and airline respirators, with an emergency escape bottle, used as a precautionary
measure during the changing of toxic gas cylinders (e.g., arsine, phosphine, and
diborane)
• Airline respirators or air purifying cartridge respirators used during certain equipment
maintenance operations most notably those involving arsenic (e.g., cleaning GaAs crystal
growers and cleaning source housings of ion implanters using solid or gaseous arsenic)”
[i]
Publishing/Noyes, 1998; pages 251-55.

Controls – Gloves and Surfaces
Gloves – complex processes require careful chemical protective glove selection (see glove
selection table).[i]
Surface contamination – wipe sampling is of interest to the semiconductor industry
because of certain metals used in the manufacturing
Publishing/Noyes, 1998; pages 242-51.

Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring – lead and arsenic [not solvents].[i]

Other Health Concerns
Food services
China – Food poisoning of 160 employees who ate underdone kidney beans at the ITT
Canon (Xiamen) Electronics Co.[i]
Shift rotation
Malaysia – shift rotation was reported to involve more than 90% of 968 women
workers in 18 semiconductor factories surveyed for sick leave and exposure variables.
[ii]
Drugs and alcohol use
Thailand – drugs sold to workers by company clinics to keep workers awake for long
shifts.[iii]
[i] Food Poisoning Sickens 160 Company Staff. Xinhua News Agency, October 26, 2004.
[ii] Chee HL, Rampal KG. Relation between sick leave and selected exposure variables among
women semiconductor workers in Malaysia. Occupational and Environmental Medicine,
2003;60:262-70.
[iii] Greenfield G. The ‘Non-Political’ Politics of OSH. Asian Labour Update. Asia Monitor
Resource Center, Hong Kong; Issue 28, June-August 1998, page 4.

Migrant Labor
China – Shenzhen has more than 2 million migrant workers [many presumably in the
electronics assembly sector].[i]
[i] Fung KL. Occupational Safety and Health in China. Hong Kong Christian Industrial Committee
report at the Mekong Region OSH Workshop, November 2000, as printed in Asian Labour Update.
Asia Monitor Resource Center, Hong Kong; Issue 39, April-June 2001, page 13.

Prison Labor
USA – In 2002 Spartan Electronics Inc. contracted state and federal prisons in Las
Cruces, New Mexico, to have their convicts take over portions of its cable assembly, wire
harness and wire-prepping work for tour bus lighting mechanism from its Deming, NM
plant. Opponents argue that prisoners were paid less than minimum wage. Though not
less than wage rates in Asia, they are comparable to wage rates in Mexico. For less than a
year in 2002-2003, Dell Inc. contracted with a Unicor prison factory to do computer
recycling assembly work, but stopped due to shareholder pressure.[i]
USA – A survey in 2002 by Enterprise Prison Institute based in Bethesda, Maryland, of
30 of 200 companies (electronics, textiles, industrial machinery) found that 39 got
involved because of labor shortages in their respective regions, and only 15% to lower
production costs.[ii]

Prison Labor
USA – Federal Prison Industries Inc., a corporation within the US Department of

Justice, operates at least 11 electronics assembly factories, known as Unicor. It is a
military defense contractor utilizing prison labor. At their Atwater, CA facility,
inmates involved in recycling computers were being paid between $0.20 and $1.26 per
hour, and using crude methods to break lead-containing parts.[iii],[iv],[v],[vi]
[i] Balijko J. The alternative workforce. Electronics Supply and Manufacturing. May 31, 2004. www.my-esm.com/
printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=21400488.
[ii] Balijko J. The alternative workforce. Electronics Supply and Manufacturing. May 31, 2004. www.my-
esm.com/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=21400488.
[iii] http://www.unicor.gov/schedule/custom12.htm
[iv] Balijko J. The alternative workforce. Electronics Supply and Manufacturing. May 31, 2004. www.my-
esm.com/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=21400488.
[v] Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition. Corporate Strategies for Electronic Recycling: A Tale of Two Systems. June
2003. http://www.svtc.org
[vi] Markoff J. 2 PC Makers Given Credit And Blame In Recycling. The New York Times, June 27, 2003.

Child Labor
China – A factory was shut down by the local Labor Inspectorate in Huizhou City that
had started production without a license and using 35 children in an illegal household
setting to assemble electronic toy parts under contract with a Shenzhen electronic toy
factory. The children were being paid by the piece at 0.5 yuan for one toy.[i]
[i] Factory Closed for Using Child Labor. Shenzhen Daily, August 24, 2004.

Recycling E-Waste
This and similar photos can be viewed on the internet.[i]

[i] See photographs on internet: www.ban.org/E-wastephotos/index.html.

Recycling E-Waste
See previous photograph…
COMPUTER AGE Woman about to smash a cathode ray tube from a computer
monitor in order to remove the copper laden yoke at the end of the funnel. The glass
is laden with lead but the biggest hazard from this is the inhalation of the highly
toxic phosphor dust coating inside. Monitor glass is later dumped in irrigation
canals and along the river where it leaches lead into the groundwater. The
groundwater in Guiyu is completely contaminated to the point where fresh water is
trucked in constantly for drinking purposes. Guiyu, China. December 2001.
Copyright Basel Action Network.

Recycling E-Waste
China – From November 1, 2004, China banned imports of scrap electronic goods such
as refrigerators and television sets because of pollution concerns.[i]
China – List of products banned from import dumping by China.[ii]
China – Guiyu, home industries recycling computers and other electronic product waste.
High degree of pollution, melting of parts and printed circuit boards on home fires,
children doing some of the work. Lianjiang River, irrigation ditches, rice paddies strewn
with E-waste, and drinking water polluted by it.[iii]
China – Taizhou, significant quantities of E-waste (computers, etc.) banned for import by
China was discovered mixed in with large bulk volumes of scrap metal shipped in from
Japan and South Korea. Workers burn plastic housings, wire coatings, other parts to
reclaim metal.[iv]
[i] Electronic Waste Imports Face Ban. China Daily, October 29, 2004.
[ii] See list posted on internet: www.ban.org/china_list.html.
[iii] Associated Press, Beijing. China to crackdown on smuggling of E-trash, May 30, 2002.
[iv] Basel Action Network / Greenpeace China. Japan found dumping toxic electronic waste in new dumping zone in
China. Press release, April 21, 2004. See www.ban.org/ban_news/Japan_found.html.

Resources – Publications
•Baldwin DG, Williams ME, Murphy PL. Chemical Safety Handbook for the
Semiconductor/Electronics Industry (Third Edition). Beverly Farms, Massachusetts:
OEM Press, 2002. 425 pages, pocket size. US$21.95. OEM Press Tel: 1-800-533-8046.
www.oempress.com.
•Williams, ME, Baldwin, DG. Semiconductor Industrial Hygiene Handbook - Monitoring,
Ventiliation, Equipment and Ergonomics. William Andrew Publishing/Noyes, 1995. 361
pages. US$48. Available from Knovel.
•Bolmen RA. Semiconductor Safety Handbook - Safety and Health in the Semiconductor
Industry. William Andrew Publishing/Noyes, 1998. 617 pages. US$89. Available from
Knovel.
•Smith TG, Sonnenfeld DA, Pellow DN (Editors). Challenging the Chip: Labor Rights and
Environmental Justice in the Global Electronics Industry. Philadelphia: Temple University
Press. Scheduled for publishing late 2005.
•Flatt, M. Printed Circuit Board Basics. Third edition. San Francisco, California: Miller
Freeman Inc., 1997.

Resources - Publications
•Gassert TH. Health Hazards in Electronics – A Handbook. Hong Kong: Asia Monitor
Resource Center, 1985. [AMRC, Sheung Wan, Hong Kong SAR, China.
www.amrc.org. Out of print. Abridged editions published in Chinese by AMRC in
1986, and in English published by International Metalworkers Federation, Geneva,
Switzerland in1987. Revised edition printing planned for 2006 in conjunction with the
International Metalworkers Federation, Geneva, Switzerland.]
•Annual Survey of Work Injuries & Illnesses of the Occupational Health System of the
Semicondcutor Industry Association 2000. Available online from Occupational Health
Systems. Go to www.ohsys.com.

Resources – Organizations / Internet
Maquiladora Health & Safety Support Network

P.O. Box 124, Berkeley, CA 94701-0124
USA
Tel: 510-558-1014
Fax: 510-525-8951
www.mhssn.igc.org
Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition

760 N. First Street San Jose, CA 95112
USA
Tel: +1 408-287-6707
Fax: +1 408-287-6771
Email: svtc@svtc.org
www.svtc.org

Resources – Organizations / Internet
SIA Worker Health Project
Semiconductor Industry Association
181 Metro Drive, Suite 450
San Jose, CA 95110
USA
Tel: 408-436-6600
Fax: 408-436-6646
www.sia-online.org/iss_whs.cfm
Semiconductor Safety Association
www.semiconductorsafety.org
Semiconductor Environmental, Safety and Health Association
1313 Dolley Madison Blvd., Suite 402
McLean, VA 22101
USA
Tel: 703-790-1745
Fax: 703-790-2672
www.seshaonline.org

The Global Electronics Industry: Worker and Community Health

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The Global Electronics Industry

Worker and Community Health

Thomas H. Gassert, M.D., M.Sc.

Developed to developing nations shift (MNCs/TNCs/MNEs)

2 Dec 2005 THG The Global Electronics Industry 2

[i] Chepesiuk R. Where the Chips Fall: Environmental Health in the

Some semiconductor manufacturers use well over 300 types of chemicals. HP

2 Dec 2005 THG The Global Electronics Industry 3

[i] Tenenbaum DJ. Short-Circuiting Environmental Protections? Environmental

2 Dec 2005 THG The Global Electronics Industry 4

Outsourcing – The Electronics Manufacturing Services (EMS) industry serves

[i] Ojo B, Johnson G. Top 50 EMS Companies. [Includes list of companies,

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China – Rapid upgrading from low-cost consumer goods to high-technology items.

2 Dec 2005 THG The Global Electronics Industry 8

China – Four bases emerging for the semiconductor industry:

[i] Chip: From China-made to China-created. People’s Daily, September

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UMC – United Microelectronics Corp. (Taiwan)

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Virtually none – in any nation, including USA

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Women – In mid-1980s it was estimated that 90% of electronics assembly

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Japan – Flat-panel (liquid crystal) displays

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aqua regia acetic acid

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Epoxy Resins (Epoxides) Curing Agents (for Epoxies) Resin

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acetone dichlorobenzene heptane pentane

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Semiconductor (wafer) production and fabrication:

Clean Room production – defined by airborne particle size

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Source: Gassert T. Health

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Boron – one less

Doping may be repeated 8 – 20 times on a single wafer.

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Source: Gassert T. Health

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Source: Gassert T. Health

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