Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Quality Control
Inspection and
Inspection of lots corrective Quality built
before/after action during into the
production production process
10-3
Inspection
Figure 10.2
10-4
Inspection Costs
Figure 10.3
Cost
Total Cost
Cost of
inspection
Cost of
passing
defectives
Optimal
Amount of Inspection
10-5
Where to Inspect in the Process
10-6
Examples of Inspection Points
Table 10.1
Type of Inspection Characteristics
business points
Fast Food Cashier Accuracy
Counter area Appearance, productivity
Eating area Cleanliness
Building Appearance
Kitchen Health regulations
Hotel/motel Parking lot Safe, well lighted
Accounting Accuracy, timeliness
Building Appearance, safety
Main desk Waiting times
Supermarket Cashiers Accuracy, courtesy
Deliveries Quality, quantity
10-7
Statistical Control
10-8
Control Chart
Control Chart
Purpose: to monitor process output to see
if it is random
A time ordered plot representative sample
statistics obtained from an on going
process (e.g. sample means)
Upper and lower control limits define the
range of acceptable variation
10-9
Control Chart
Figure 10.4
Mean
Normal variation
due to chance
LCL
Abnormal variation
due to assignable sources
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Sample number
10-10
Statistical Process Control
The essence of statistical process
control is to assure that the output of a
process is random so that future output
will be random.
10-11
Statistical Process Control
10-12
Statistical Process Control
10-13
Sampling Distribution
Figure 10.5
Sampling
distribution
Process
distribution
Mean
10-14
Normal Distribution
Figure 10.6
σ = Standard deviation
−3σ −2σ + 2σ + 3σ
Mean
95.44%
99.74%
10-15
Control Limits
Figure 10.7
Sampling
distribution
Process
distribution
Mean
Lower Upper
control control
limit limit
10-16
Control Limits are based on the
Normal Curve
x
µ
z
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Standard
Standard
deviation
deviation
units
unitsoror“z”
“z”
units.
units.
Control Limits
99.7%
x
LCL UCL
SPC Errors
Type I error
Concluding a process is not in control
when it actually is.
Type II error
Concluding a process is in control when it
is not.
10-19
Type I and Type II Errors
Table 10.2
10-20
Type I Error
Figure 10.8
α /2 α /2
Mean
10-21
Observations from Sample
Figure 10.9 Distribution
UCL
LCL
1 2 3 4
Sample number
10-22
Control Charts for Variables
Variables generate data that are measured.
Mean control charts
Used to monitor the central tendency of a
process.
X bar charts
(process mean is
shifting upward)
Sampling
Distribution
UCL
UCL
Does not
R-chart
detect shift
LCL
10-24
Mean and Range Charts
Figure 10.10B
Sampling
Distribution (process variability is increasin
UCL
Does not
x-Chart
LCL
reveal increase
UCL
10-25
Statistical Process Control Chart
Exhibit S9.21
10-26
Control Chart Decision Rules
Source: Bertrand L. Hansen, Quality Control: Theory and Applications © 1963, p. 65.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. Exhibit S9.22
10-27
Control Chart Decision Rules
Source: Bertrand L. Hansen, Quality Control: Theory and Applications © 1963, p. 65.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. Exhibit S9.22 (cont’d)
10-28
Changes in Mean and Variation
of Sample Mean Distributions
Exhibit S9.23
10-29
X and R Charts for Variables SPC
Exhibit S9.24
10-30
Control Chart for Attributes
10-31
Use of p-Charts
Table 10.4
10-32
Use of c-Charts
Table 10.4
10-33
Use of Control Charts
At what point in the process to use
control charts
What size samples to take
What type of control chart to use
Variables
Attributes
10-34
Run Tests
Run test – a test for randomness
Any sort of pattern in the data would
suggest a non-random process
All points are within the control limits -
the process may not be random
10-35
Nonrandom Patterns in Control
charts
Trend
Cycles
Bias
Mean shift
Too much dispersion
10-36
Counting Runs
B A A B A B B B A A B
U U D U D U D U U D
10-37
NonRandom Variation
Managers should have response plans to
investigate cause
May be false alarm (Type I error)
May be assignable variation
10-38
Process Capability
Tolerances or specifications
Range of acceptable values established by engineering design
or customer requirements
Process variability
Natural variability in a process—measured by std devn of
process
Process capability
Process variability relative to specification--- determination of
whether variability inherent in the output of process that is in
control falls within the design specifications for the product
output
Control Limits
Statistical limits that reflect the extent to which sample statistics
like mean,range can vary due to randomness alone
10-39
Properties of a Normal
Distribution
The distribution is bilaterally symmetrical.
68.3 percent of the distribution lies between
plus and minus one standard deviation from
the mean.
95.4 percent of the distribution lies between
plus and minus two standard deviations from
the mean.
99.7 percent of the distribution lies between
plus and minus three standard deviations
from the mean.
10-40
Areas under the Normal Distribution
Curve Corresponding to Different
Numbers of
Standard Deviations from the Mean
Exhibit S9.19
10-41
Statistical Process Control
(cont’d)
Process Capability (Study)
Comparing inherent variation in a process to the
customer’s requirements (the specifications) to
determine whether the process can produce
what the customer requires
Collect data on the process while the process is
operating without known causes of variation.
Compare the customer’s requirements to the inherent
variation of the process.
If the customer’s specifications fall within the three standard
deviations for the process, some predictable percentage of
the time, the process will produce output that will not meet
the customer’s needs.
10-42
Capability Study
Exhibit S9.20
10-43
Process Capability
Figure 10.15
Lower Upper
Specification Specification
A. Process variability
matches specifications
Lower Upper
Specification Specification
B. Process variability
Lower Upper
well within specifications Specification Specification
C. Process variability
exceeds specifications
10-44
In case c,options are
Redesign process to achieve desired output
Use a new process
Ensure 100% inspection
Change specification
10-45
Process Capability Ratio
If the process is centered use Cp
specification width
Process capability ratio, Cp =
process width
10-46
Minimum process capability required=1.
Good measure=1.33
For cp=1,DPM=2700 and for
cp=1.3330,DPM=30
For a Six sigma programme,Cp=2 –Process
variability is so small that design tolerance is
six SD above and below the process mean
Cp=2 means Specification
width=(6SD+6SD)/6SD
Fig 10.16
10-47
Process variability of 6 standard deviations refers to +/- 3 standard deviations of the process from mean
Eg length of time to perform a service is 10 mts and acceptable variation is +/-1 minute.If process SD=0.5 Mts
+/- 3 SD=1.5 min
Design tolerance=1 min
Hence not capable
10-48
The Cereal Box Example
10-49
Cereal Box Process Capability
Specification or Tolerance
Limits
Upper Spec = 16.8 oz
Lower Spec = 15.2 oz
X − LTL UTL − X
Observed WeightC pk = Min ;
Mean = 15.875 oz 3σ 3σ
Std Dev = .529 oz 15.875 − 15.2 16.8 − 15.875
C pk = Min ;
3(.529 ) 3(.529 )
C pk = Min{.4253; .5829}
C pk = .4253
10-50
What does a Cpk of .4253 mean?
10-51
Limitations of Capability Indexes
1. Process may not be stable
2. Process output may not be normally
distributed
3. Process not centered but Cp is used
10-52
Example 8
Standard Machine
Machine Deviation Capability Cp
A 0.13 0.78 0.80/0.78 = 1.03
B 0.08 0.48 0.80/0.48 = 1.67
C 0.16 0.96 0.80/0.96 = 0.83
10-53
3 Sigma and 6 Sigma Quality
Lower Upper
specification specification
Process
mean
+/- 3 Sigma
+/- 6 Sigma
10-54
Graph of the normal distribution, which underlies the
statistical assumptions of the Six Sigma model. The Greek
letter σ (sigma) marks the distance on the horizontal axis
between the mean, µ, and the curve's inflection point. The
greater this distance, the greater is the spread of values
encountered. For the curve shown above, µ = 0 and σ = 1.
The upper and lower specification limits (USL, LSL) are at a
distance of 6σ from the mean. Because of the properties of
the normal distribution, values lying that far away from the
mean are extremely unlikely. Even if the mean were to
move right or left by 1.5σ at some point in the future (1.5
sigma shift), there is still a good safety cushion. This is why
Six Sigma aims to have processes where the mean is at
least 6σ away from the nearest specification limit.
10-55
10-56
The Goal of Six Sigma
Exhibit S9.29
10-57
Impact of 1.5σ Shift on 3σ Process
Exhibit S9.30A
10-58
Impact of 1.5σ Shift on 6σ Process
Exhibit S9.30B
10-59
Defect Rates for Different Levels of Sigma
(σ)
Assuming a 1.5 Shift in Actual Mean from
Design Mean
Exhibit S9.31
10-60
Improving Process Capability
Simplify
Standardize
Mistake-proof
Upgrade equipment
Automate
10-61
Taguchi Loss Function
Figure 10.17
Traditional
cost function
Cost
Taguchi
cost function
10-62
Advanced Quality Tools
Affinity diagrams
Used to structure and clarify ideas by organizing
them according to their affinity, or similarity, to
each other.
Interrelationship digraph
Helps to sort out cause-and-effect relationships
when there are a large number of interrelated
issues that need to be better understood.
10-63
Affinity
Diagram of
Team Learning
Objectives Exhibit S9.9
10-64
Relations Diagram for Late Hospital
Discharge
Exhibit S9.10
10-65
Advanced Quality Tools
(cont’d)
Tree diagram
Helps determine ways to meet objectives by
breaking down a main goal into subgoals and
actions and identify the strategy to be taken.
Matrix diagram
Used to organize information that can be compared
on a variety of characteristics in order to make a
comparison, selection, or choice.
Arranges elements of a problem or event in rows
and columns on a chart that shows relationships
among each pair of elements.
10-66
Basic Structure of a Tree Diagram
Exhibit S9.11
10-67
Matrix Diagram
Exhibit S9.12
10-68