Lecture 1

Definition and Fundamental Principles

of Remote Sensing

 Definitions:
 Gathering information from a distance – devoted
to the observation of the earth’s land and water
surfaces by means of reflected or emitted
electromagnetic energy;

 “The measurement or acquisition of information

of some property of an object or phenomenon,
by a recording device that is not in physical
contact with the object or phenomenon under
study”
-Colwell, 1983

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 Using sensors other than (or in addition to) a
conventional camera through which scenes are
recorded using electronic scanning, radiation
outside the normal visual range, radar, thermal,
infrared, ultraviolet and multi-spectral ranges with
special techniques applied to process and
interpretation of images. (American Society of
Photogrammetry);

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 History of Remote Sensing:
• 1800 – Discovery of infrared by Sir William
Herschel;
• 1839 – Beginning of practice of photograph;
• 1850-1860 – Photography from balloons;
• 1873 – Theory of electromagnetic energy
developed by James Maxwell;
• 1909 – Photography from airplanes;
• 1914-1918 – WW I; Aerial reconnaissance;
• 1920-1930 – Development and initial applications
of aerial photography and photogrammetry;
• 1929-1939 – Economic depression,
environmental crisis leading to Govt. application
of aerial photography;
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• 1930-1940 – Development of radar in Germany,
USA, and UK;
• 1940-1950 – WW II: application of nonvisible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum; training of
persons in acquisition and interpretation of air
photos;
• 1950-1960 – Military research and development
• 1960-1970 – First use of the term “remote sensing”
– TIROS weather satellite; Skylab remote sensing
observations from space;
• 1972 – Launching of Landsat 1 – the first
systematic repetitive observation of the earth’s land
area;
• 1970-1980 – Rapid advances in digital image
processing;
• 1980-1990 – Landsat 4: new generation of Landsat
sensors;

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• 1986 – SPOT French Earth observation satellite;
• 1980s – Development of hypospectral sensors;
• 1990s Global remote sensing;
(Campbell, j. 2002)

 GIS and Remote Sensing: Recent History:

 In the past 10-15 years, GIS and RS have matured
as technologies;
 Computer power increased many-fold, and
computers penetrated many new work environments
(like geology);
 Costs of data storage have fallen dramatically;

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 New technological developments have led to
improved sensor resolution (spatial and
spectral);
 GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) have made
software easier (sometimes) to use;
 Low-cost desktop GIS/RS software programs
were developed;
 Development of the Global Positioning System
(GPS);

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 Components of Remote
Sensing:
 An energy source: Sun -
the main energy source;
- Passive systems:
measurement of natural
radiation such as reflected
sunlight;
- Active systems: RS
systems carrying its own
source of electromagnetic
energy e.g. radar - not
meteorological dependent

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 Propagation medium: The atmosphere through
which energy passes
- The ability of the atmosphere to transmit and
block electromagnetic energy is important in
remote sensing accuracy;
 Energy detector or sensor: The principal
physical basis for RS is the capacity of sensor
instruments to measure spectral, spatial, and
temporal variation in the energetic bodies;
- Films and detectors developed to measure
electromagnetic energy of various wavelengths
and under various conditions;
- The property of an object measured by the type
of radiation coming from it;

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 A Platform: The location of sensors;
- Aircrafts at various heights above the earth;
- Spacecraft and satellites in earth orbit; and
- Ground platforms on the earth’s surface;
 Data handling: Analysis and data reduction of
data collected in the form of photographs,
imagery, or electrical signals;
- Ground truthing for calibration is a significant
input in data handling;

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 Key Concepts in RS:
 Spectral differentiation:
• RS depends on observing spectral differences in
energy reflected or emitted from objects of
interest;
• Based on the principle of multispectral RS;
• “Spectral signature” refers to the response of a
feature as observed over a range of wave lengths;
 Radiometric differentiation:
• The dependence on the detection of differences in
brightness of objects and features;

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• Recording contrast to derive
information about an object;
 Spatial differentiation:
• Sensors limited in the size of the
smallest area that can be
separately recorded on an
image – resolution;
• Determines spatial detail;
• Picture elements (pixels) –
smallest area units identifiable
on an image;
- Discrete, distinct units
represented by a digital number;

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 Geometric transformation:
• Remotely sensed image represents a
landscapes in a specific geometric relationship;
• Operation condition, topographic relief, type of
instrument – factors determining geometric
relationships;
• Position error resulting from the motion of
scanning, relief, earth curvature, and the
perspective view of the instrument;
- results in geometric error which must be taken
into account before use in measuring areas and
distances;

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 Interchangeability of pictorial and digital
formats:
• Photographic-like images can be represented in
digital format by creating pixels and representing
the brightness of these by discrete values;
• Digital images can also be displayed as pictorial
images;
 The Atmosphere:
• Energy reaching the RS system passes through
the atmosphere;
• Particles and gasses in the atmosphere alters
the intensity and wavelength of the sun’s energy
– degrading images or influencing accuracy of
interpretation;

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 Remote Sensing Processes:
• Problem identification;
• Data collection;
• Data analysis;
- Analog (visual) Image processing;
- Digital image processing
 Preprocessing – geometric correction or
rectification, radiometric correction;
 Information enhancement – image reduction,
magnification, transect extraction, principle
component analysis and texture transformation;

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  Information extraction – using primary
elements of tone and color of image
pixels;
• Information Output
 Combination with other data to address
specific problems e.g. land-use planning,
mineral exploration ect.
 Combination with other geospatial data e.g.
GIS – soils, geology, transportation network to
guide site location analysis

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 Remote Sensing Overview
 Physical Objects:
• Buildings, vegetation, soil, water etc.
 Sensor data:
• Instruments used to view the physical objects
by recording electromagnetic radiation emitted
or reflected;
 Extracted information:
• Transformation of sensor data designed to
reveal specific kinds of information;
- Images interpreted to provide information
about soils, land-use, hydrology ect.

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 Application:
• Combining RS with other data to address specific
practical problem

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Remote Sensing Overview

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Remote Sensing Overview

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 Why is Remote Sensing Useful?
 Large spatial format can give a synoptic view which
is quicker than field reconnaissance with no
temporal variations;
 Can acquire data from inaccessible regions;
 Spectral range of sensors allows for collection of
data in invisible wavelengths;
 Allows for detection of change over time;
 In many professions location in geographic space
is important : (What is the latitude and longitude of
the forest fire? What is the density of pine trees in
my field area? What is the area of a river’s
floodplain, and are there homes and businesses
threatened by floods?

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 GIS and remote sensing are mapping technologies;
that deal with spatial information;
 “The Best Map is an Image” (Erdas Imagine
software slogan), and maps based on images;

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 Readings:
 Remote Sensing and Digital Image
Processing. Lillesand and Kiefer,
1989. Pg. 1-9

 Introduction to Remote Sensing. James B.

Campbell. Chapter 1

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