Lecture 4

Digital Image Processing

 The process of manipulation and interpretation
of digital images using a computer;
 Began in the 1960’s with airborne multispectral
scanner data and digitized aerial photos;
 Digital image data became available after 1972
with the launching of Landsat-1;
 Typically include:
- Radiometric preprocessing – adjusting
digital values for the effect of scattering and
haze; and
- Geometric preprocessing – registering
image with a map or other image;
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  Categories of Preprocessing:
 Feature or Information Extraction:
 Refers to statistical characteristic of the
image e.g. individual bands or combination of
band values;
 Discarding of data containing noise and
errors, isolating only components that are
essential to portraying essential elements;
 Increases accuracy;
 Multispectral data by nature consist of
several channels (3, 4, or 7);

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  Reducing the number of spectral channel, or
bands being analyzed – reducing
computational demand;
 After completion of feature selection, analysis
works with fewer and more effective bands –
increasing speed and reduces cost of
analysis;
 Uses the computer to recognize and classify
pixels or neighborhood of pixels on the basis
of their spectral-radiometric response (DN’s);

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  Subsets:
 Selection of a portion of a large image to show
only the region of interest:
 Must be registered to other data using land
marks – matching images to maps or other
maps;
 Should be large enough to provide sufficient
number of training fields for image classification
or sites for accuracy assessment;

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  Radiometric Correction;
 Radiometric data allows the analysis to relate
brightness recorded by aerial sensors to
corresponding brightness of ground feature;
 Radiance measured is influenced by:
- changes in scene illumination,
- atmospheric condition,
- viewing geometry (greater in airborne data
collection), and
- instrument response;

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  Atmospheric Correction Procedure:
 Atmospheric correction is based on examination of
reflectance from objects of known or assumed
brightness;
 Using the principles of atmospheric scattering
(related to wavelength, size of particles, and
abundance);
 Employ the use of features of known brightness e.g.
water bodies or shadows cast by clouds or large
topographic features;
 Brightness value at or near zero (strong absorption)
in the IR portion of the spectrum and very little IR
energy is scattered;

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 Effect of atmospheric scattering
and absorption on spectral-
raidometric responses

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Satellite Images Are Digital Data

•Each cell (or pixel) has a

numerical value which is a
function of the material present
within that pixel (i.e. the
reflective or emissive properties
of the material) and the spectral
region by which the sensor is
recording.

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  Topographic effect:
 Slope correction (normalization) is the removal
of all topographically induced illumination
– Objects showing the same brightness value
despite their different orientation to the sun’s
position;
 Commonly require a DEM of the study area for
slope-aspect topographic correction;

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  The amount of illumination is a function of
the angle that light hits the slope;
 Sun elevation correction – accounting for
elevation correction and for seasonal
position of the sun relative to the earth;
- Images acquired under different solar
illumination angles are normalized by
calculating pixel brightness values ,
assuming the sun was at the zenith (900
minus the solar elevation angle) on each
date;

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  Geometric correction:
 All RS imagery is inherently subject to
geometric distortions;
 Geometric corrections are intended to
compensate for these distortions so that the
geometric representation of the imagery will be
as close as possible to the real world.
 Source of distortions in images include:
- variation in altitude;
- velocity of the sensor platform;
- panoramic distortion;
- earth curvature;
- atmospheric refraction;
- relief displacement; and
- nonlinearities in the sweep of a sensor’s
IFOV;
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  Variations are either systematic, or predictable
in nature and can be accounted for by accurate
modeling of the sensor and platform motion and
the geometric relationship of the platform with
the Earth.
 3 R’s of Geometric Correction:
 Rectification: Transformation of a geometrically
distorted image so that it can be registered to a
map – moving pixels to a correct map location;
 Resampling: Determination of DN values to fill
in the output matrix of the rectified image;
 Registration: Overlaying two or more images or
maps so that they coincide geometrically;

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  Geometric correction - Resampling:
 Corrected by analyzing well-distributed ground
control points (GCPs);
- i.e. known ground locations that can be located
on the digital image;
 Identifying image coordinates (i.e. row, column) in
the distorted image and matching them to their
true position in ground coordinates (e.g. latitude,
longitude);
 Geometric transformation is performed using an
affine transformation (preserve lines and
parallelism);

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  Transformation equations are fitted using least-
square regression equation to determine
coefficients interrelating the corrected map
coordinate to the distorted image coordinates;
 The resampling process calculates new pixel
values from the original digital pixel value;
 Three common methods of resampling:
 Nearest neighbor:
 Assign each “corrected” pixel the value from the
nearest “uncorrected” pixel (labeled a in
diagram);
 Adv. – simple and preservation of original value
 Disadv. – Creates positional error

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  Bilinear interpolation:
 Value of each output pixel based on the distance-
weighted average of the four nearest input pixel (a
and b in diagram);
 Image smoother in appearance than nearest
neighbor;
 Disadv. - Brightness values in input image are lost;
- Decreases spatial resolution (smearing) caused
by averaging small features with adjacent
background pixels;

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  Cubic convolution:
 Weighted average value of adjacent 16 pixels (a,
b, and c in diagram);
 Appearance sharper, computation more intense,
require a larger number of GCPs;

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  Advantages of Digital Image Processing:
 Cost-effective for large geographic areas;
 Cost-effective for repetitive interpretations;
 Cost-effective for standard image formats;
 Consistent results;
 Simultaneous interpretations of several
channels;
 Complex interpretation algorithms possible;
 Speed may be an advantage;
 Explore alternatives;
 Compatible with other digital data ;

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  Disadvantages of Digital Image Processing:
 Expensive for small areas;
 Expensive for one-time interpretations;
 Start-up costs may be high;
 Requires elaborate, single-purpose
equipment;
 Accuracy may be difficult to evaluate;
 Requires standard image formats;
 Data may be expensive, or not available;
 Preprocessing may be required;
 May require large support staff;
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  Digital vs. Manual Interpretation:
 MANUAL INTERPRETATION
 Traditional and intuitive;
 Simple, inexpensive equipment;
 Uses brightness and Spatial content of the
image;
 Usually single channel data or three channels at
most;
 Subjective, concrete, qualitative

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  DIGITAL INTERPRETATION
 Recent application;
 Requires specialized training
 Complex, expensive equipments
 Relies chiefly upon brightness and spectral
content, limited spatial;
 Frequent use of data from several channels;
 Objective, abstract, quantitative;

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  Assigned Reading
Lillesand and Kiefer. 1994. Remote Sensing and
Image Interpretation. Chap. 7

Campbell. Introduction to Remote Sensing. Chap.

10

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