Lecture 5

Image Classification
 Objective is to automatically categorized all
pixels in an image into land cover classes;
 Classification normally performed with
multispectral data;
 Different features have different combination of
DNs based on their spectral reflectance or
emittance properties;
 The DNs are used as a numerical basis for
classification;
 Pattern is discerned from the set of radiance
measurement obtained in the various
wavelength bands;
8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 1
 Digital image classification uses the spectral information
represented by the digital numbers in one or more spectral
bands (A), and attempts to classify each individual pixel based
on this spectral information (B).

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 2

  Identification of Patterns:
 Spectral pattern recognition: Classification
using pixel-by-pixel spectral information as the
basis for land-use classification;
 Spatial pattern recognition: Categorization of
image pixels based on the spatial relationship
with surrounding pixels e.g. using image texture,
pixel proximity, feature size, shape etc.
 Temporal pattern recognition: Use time to aid
in feature identification e.g. examining spectral
and spatial changes during the growing season
to discriminate differences in multidate imagery;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 3

  Classification is used to provide
information on among others things:
 Land Use;
 Vegetation types;
 Soil, minerals and geomorphology;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 4

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 5
  Types of Classification:
 Visual interpretation:
 Simple and easy to implement but very subjective
and time consuming.
 Digital image classifications:
 Supervised classification

- when the identity and location of land cover

types is known beforehand;
- The analysis “supervises” the pixel
categorization process by specifying
numerical descriptors of the various land use;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 6

  Unsupervised classification

- when there is no or only limited beforehand

knowledge of the land cover;
- Aggregating image data into natural
spectral grouping or clusters;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 7

 Supervised Classification:
 General steps
1. Training stage:
 The definition of classes and the selection of
representative training areas;
 Training areas are regions within the image
that are representative of the land cover
classes – must be homogeneous;
2. Classification stage:
 The allocation of pixels to the defined classes
3. Output stage:
 The accuracy of the classification is assessed

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 8

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 9
 Training Areas
Forest

Clouds Water

Urban

Grass Agriculture

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 10

  The Training Stage:
 Requires substantial reference data and through
knowledge of the area to which the data apply;
 Overall objective – to assembly a set of statistics
that describes the spectral response pattern of
each land cover;
 Training sets must be both representative and
complete i.e. statistics for all spectral classes
represented;
- E.g. if a water body contain two distinct areas
of clear and turbid water a minimum of two
spectral classes are required to train for this
feature;
- Agricultural class may consist of several crop
type each of which must be represented;
8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 11
8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 12
  Training areas normally established by using
enlarged windows;
 Avoid pixel located on the edge between two
land cover type;
 Types of analysis for Training Set
Refinement:
I. Graphical representation of the spectral
response pattern:
 The graphical display of training areas -
histograms:
 Provides a visible check on the normality of
the spectral response distribution;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 13

  Statistics Extraction:
 Once you training areas have been digitized
extraction of statistics for the training areas
follows;
 Normal distribution is achieved by ensuring that
training data are pure that is they include only
one land cover class;
 If more than one land cover class is present
within the training area for a particular class the
normal distribution may be violated or;
 The training data may be composed of two
subclasses with slightly different spectral
characteristics;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 14

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 15
  Important statistics includes:
 Mean;
 Minimum and maximum;
 Standard deviation;
 Co-variance;
 Correlation;
 mean, standard deviation and co-variance are
only meaningful if the input data are normally
distributed;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 16

  Separability
 One way of enhancing the output of a
classification, is to examine the separability of the
defined classes;
- Coincident spectral plots – using the mean
spectral response and the variance of the
distribution;
 Indicate the overlap between category response
pattern;
 Plot also show which combination of bands are
best for discrimination;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 17

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 18
 II. Quantitative expression of category
separation:
 Statistical separation between category
response pattern are computed for all pair of
classes, presented in the form of a divergence
matrix;
i.e. a covariance-weighted distance between
category means;
III. Self-classification of training set data:
 Using an error matrix to determine what
percentage of the training pixels are actually
classified as expected;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 19

  Supervised Classification:
 Classification stage:
 The assignment of unknown pixels to one of a
number of classes using a certain decision rule;
 Some of the most frequently used decision rules
are the minimum distance to means, the
parallelpiped classifer and the maximum
likelihood decision rule;
 Minimum distance:
 Based on the distance to the mean vector for each
class;
 A pixel is assigned to that class where the distance
to the mean vector is shortest;
 Not widely used in application where spectral
classes are close in measurement space and have
high variance;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 20

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 21
  Parallelepiped Classifier:
 Range defined by the highest and lowest DN
value in each band and appear as a rectangular
area (parallelepiped);
 Unknown pixels are classified according to the
category range, or decision region in which it
lies;
 Difficulty occur when categories overlap –
classified as “not sure” – disadvantage;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 22

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 23
  Maximum Likelihood Classifier:
 Assumes a multivariate normal distribution;
 Given this assumption, the class signature can be
completely described by the:
- mean vector;
- covariance matrix;
 With these two statistical values we can calculate the
probability of a pixel belonging to each class;
 Based on a probability function. A pixel is assigned to
the class where it has the highest probability of
belonging to;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 24

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 25
  Advantages of Supervised Classification:
 Control over a selected menu of informational
categories tailored to a geographic region or
specific purpose;
 Tied to a specific area of known identity,
determined by selecting training sets;
 Not faced with the problem matching spectral
categories on final map with informational
categories;
 The operator may be able to detect serious error
in classification by examining training data;

8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 26

  Disadvantages and Limitations:
 The analysis impose a classification structure on the
data – may not match natural breaks;
 Training data defined primarily with reference to
informational categories and only secondarily with
reference to spectral properties;
 Training data may not be representative of condition
throughout the image;
 Pure selection of training data may be time-
consuming, expensive, and tedious;
 Special or unique categories not represented in the
training date may not be recognized – not known or
occupy a very small area of the image;
8/2/05 Applied Remote Sensing 27