Basic Electrical Components

Usman Shahid
 Lecture Contents
• Electric Current
• Voltage
• Resistance
• Capacitance
• Inductance
 Electric Current

• Definition: Electrical current is a measure of the amount of

electrical charge transferred per unit time. It represents the
flow of electrons through a conductive material.

• Current is a scalar quantity (though in circuit analysis, the

direction of current is relevant). The SI unit of electrical
current is the ampere, defined as 1 coulomb/second.
• Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons
or electron-deficient atoms.
• The common symbol for current is the uppercase letter I. The
standard unit is the ampere, symbolized by A.
• One ampere of current represents one coulomb of electrical
charge (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers) moving past a specific
point in one second.
• Electric current can be either direct or alternating.
• Direct current (DC) flows in the same direction at all
points in time, although the instantaneous magnitude
of the current might vary.
• In an alternating current (AC), the flow of charge
carriers reverses direction periodically.
• The number of complete AC cycles per second is the
frequency, which is measured in hertz.
• An example of pure DC is the current produced by an
electrochemical cell. The output of a power-supply
rectifier, prior to filtering, is an example of pulsating DC.
• The output of common utility outlets is AC.
• The first and simpler type of electricity is called direct
current, abbreviated "DC".
• This is the type of electricity that is produced by batteries,
static, and lightning.
• A voltage is created, and possibly stored, until a circuit is
completed.
• When it is, the current flows directly, in one direction. In the
circuit, the current flows at a specific, constant voltage (this
is oversimplified somewhat but good enough for our needs.)
• When you use a flashlight, pocket radio, portable CD player
or virtually any other type of portable or battery-powered
device, you are using direct current.
• Most DC circuits are relatively low in voltage; for example,
your car's battery is approximately 12 V, and that's about as
high a DC voltage as most people ever use.
• The other type of electricity is called alternating
current, or "AC".
• This is the electricity that you get from your house's
wall and that you use to power most of your electrical
appliances.
• Alternating current is harder to explain than direct
current.
• The electricity is not provided as a single, constant
voltage, but rather as a sinusoidal (sine) wave that over
time starts at zero, increases to a maximum value, then
decreases to a minimum value, and repeats.
• A representation of an alternating current's voltage
over time is shown in the diagram below.
• The other key characteristic of AC is its
frequency, measured in cycles per second (cps)
or, more commonly, Hertz (Hz).
• This number describes how many times in a
second the voltage alternates from positive to
negative and back again, completing one cycle.
• In North America, the standard is 60 Hz,
meaning 60 cycles from positive to negative and
back again in one second. In other parts of the
world the standard is 50 Hz.
 Electron
• Definition: An electron is a fundamental particle, which
means it cannot be broken into smaller particles.
Electrons may be bound in the "electron cloud"
surrounding an atomic nucleus, or may break free from
the cloud as a "free electron."
• Electron Details
• mass of an electron (me) = 9.2095 x 10-31 kg
• charge of an electron (-e) = -1.602177 x 10-19 C
• electron rest energy (mec2) = 0.511 MeV
• spin of an electron = +1/2 or -1/2
 Voltage
• Definition: Voltage is a representation of the
electric potential energy per unit charge. If a
unit of electrical charge were placed in a
location, the voltage indicates the potential
energy of it at that point. In other words, it is a
measurement of the energy contained within an
electric field, or an electric circuit, at a given
point.
• Voltage is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of
voltage is the volt, such that 1 volt = 1
joule/coulomb.
• Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative
expression of the potential difference in charge between
two points in an electrical field.
• The greater the voltage, the greater the flow of electrical
current (that is, the quantity of charge carriers that pass
a fixed point per unit of time) through a conducting or
semiconducting medium for a given resistance to the
flow.
• Voltage is symbolized by an uppercase italic letter V or E.
The standard unit is the volt, symbolized by a non-italic
uppercase letter V.
• One volt will drive one coulomb (6.24 x 1018) charge
carriers, such as electrons, through a resistance of one
ohm in one second.
• Voltage can be direct or alternating.
• A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all
times.
• In an alternating voltage, the polarity reverses
direction periodically.
• The number of complete cycles per second is the
frequency, which is measured in hertz (one cycle per
second), kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, or terahertz.
• An example of direct voltage is the potential difference
between the terminals of an electrochemical cell.
• Alternating voltage exists between the terminals of a
common utility outlet.
 Voltage is the Cause, Current is the Effect

• Voltage attempts to make a current flow, and

current will flow if the circuit is complete.
• Voltage is sometimes described as the 'push'
or 'force' of the electricity, it isn't really a force
but this may help you to imagine what is
happening.
• It is possible to have voltage without current,
but current cannot flow without voltage.
• Voltage, V
• Voltage is a measure of the energy carried by the charge.
Strictly: voltage is the "energy per unit charge".
• The proper name for voltage is potential difference or
p.d. for short, but this term is rarely used in electronics.
• Voltage is supplied by the battery (or power supply).
• Voltage is used up in components, but not in wires.
• We say voltage across a component.
• Voltage is measured in volts, V.
• Voltage is measured with a voltmeter, connected in
parallel.
• The symbol V is used for voltage in equations.
 Current
• Current is the rate of flow of charge.
• Current is not used up, what flows into a component must
flow out.
• We say current through a component.
• Current is measured in amps (amperes), A.
• Current is measured with an ammeter, connected in series.
To connect in series you must break the circuit and put the
ammeter acoss the gap, as shown in the diagram.
• The symbol I is used for current in equations.
• 1A (1 amp) is quite a large current for electronics, so mA
(milliamps) are often used. m (milli) means "thousandth":
1mA = 0.001A, or 1000mA = 1A
• The need to break the circuit to connect in
series means that ammeters are difficult to
use on soldered circuits. Most testing in
electronics is done with voltmeters which can
be easily connected without disturbing
circuits.
Voltage and Current for components in Series

• Voltages add up for components connected in series.

Currents are the same through all components
connected in series. In this circuit the 4V across the
resistor and the 2V across the LED add up to the
battery voltage: 2V + 4V = 6V.
• The current through all parts (battery, resistor and
LED) is 20mA.
 Voltage and Current for components in
Parallel
• Voltages are the same across all components connected in
parallel.
Currents add up for components connected in parallel. In this
circuit the battery, resistor and lamp all have 6V across them.
• The 30mA current through the resistor and the 60mA current
through the lamp add up to the 90mA current through the
battery.
 Resistance
• Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the
flow of electric current.
• Energy is used up as the voltage across the component drives the
current through it and this energy appears as heat in the
component. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm
is an omega Ω.
1 Ω is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in
k Ω and M Ω.
1 k Ω = 1000 Ω    
• 1 M = 1000000 Ω .
• Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 Ω
or as high as 10 M Ω.
 Resistors connected in Series
• When resistors are connected in series their combined
resistance is equal to the individual resistances added
together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in
series their combined resistance, R, is given by: Combined
resistance in series:   R = R1 + R2
• This can be extended for more resistors:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...
 Resistors connected in Parallel

• When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less

than any of the individual resistances. There is a special equation for the
combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2: Combined resistance of
two resistors in parallel:   R =  (R1 X R2) / (R1+R2)
• For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation
must be used. This adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance
to give the reciprocal of the combined resistance, R:
•  1/R  =    1/R1  +  1/R2  +  1/R3  + …
• The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use
 Ohms Law

• The relationship between Voltage, Current and

Resistance in any DC electrical circuit was firstly
discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm,
(1787 - 1854). Georg Ohm found that, at a constant
temperature, the electrical current flowing through
a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to
the voltage applied across it, and also inversely
proportional to the resistance.
• This relationship between the Voltage, Current and
Resistance forms the bases of Ohms Law and is
shown below.
• By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance
quantities we can use Ohms Law to find the third missing value. Ohms
Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so it is
"very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas".
• In this algebraic expression, voltage (E) is equal to current (I)
multiplied by resistance (R). Using algebra techniques, we can
manipulate this equation into two variations, solving for I and
for R, respectively:

• Let's see how these equations might work to help us analyze

simple circuits:
• In the above circuit, there is only one source
of voltage (the battery, on the left) and only
one source of resistance to current (the lamp,
on the right). This makes it very easy to apply
Ohm's Law. If we know the values of any two
of the three quantities (voltage, current, and
resistance) in this circuit, we can use Ohm's
Law to determine the third.
• In this first example, we will calculate the amount of current (I) in a circuit,
given values of voltage (E) and resistance (R):
• In this second example, we will calculate the amount of resistance (R) in a
circuit, given values of voltage (E) and current (I):
• In the last example, we will calculate the amount of voltage supplied by a
battery, given values of current (I) and resistance (R):
• Ohm's Law is a very simple and useful tool for
analyzing electric circuits. It is used so often in the
study of electricity and electronics that it needs to be
committed to memory by the serious student. For
those who are not yet comfortable with algebra,
there's a trick to remembering how to solve for any
one quantity, given the other two. First, arrange the
letters E, I, and R in a triangle like this:
• If you know E and I, and wish to determine R, just eliminate R
from the picture and see what's left:

• If you know E and R, and wish to determine I, eliminate I and

see what's left:
• Lastly, if you know I and R, and wish to determine E, eliminate E and see
what's left:

REVIEW:
• Voltage measured in volts, symbolized by the letters "E" or "V".
• Current measured in amps, symbolized by the letter "I".
• Resistance measured in ohms, symbolized by the letter "R".
• Ohm's Law: E = IR ; I = E/R ; R = E/I
 Power in Electrical Circuits
• Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the amount of energy that is absorbed or
produced within the circuit.
• A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or deliver power while
the connected load absorbs it.
• The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage
multiplied by the current with the unit of measurement being the Watt
(W) with prefixes used to denote milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts
(kW = 103W).
• By using Ohm's law and substituting for V, I and R the formula for
electrical power can be found as:
• By using Ohm's law and substituting for V, I and R the formula
for electrical power can be found as
The Power Triangle
• One other point about Power, if the calculated power is
positive in value for any formula the component absorbs the
power, but if the calculated power is negative in value the
component produces power, in other words it is a source of
electrical energy.
• Also, we now know that the unit of power is the WATT but
some electrical devices such as electric motors have a power
rating in Horsepower or hp.
• The relationship between horsepower and watts is given as:
1hp = 746W.
 Ohms Law Pie Chart
• We can now take all the equations from above for finding Voltage, Current,
Resistance and Power and condense them into a simple Ohms Law pie chart for
use in DC circuits and calculations.
• Example
For the circuit shown below find the Voltage (V), the Current (I), the
Resistance (R) and the Power (P).
 Energy in Electrical Circuits
• Electrical Energy that is either absorbed or produced is the product of the
electrical power measured in Watts and the time in Seconds with the unit of
energy given as Watt-seconds or Joules.

Electrical Energy= power(W) X Time(s)

• Although electrical energy is measured in Joules it can become a very large value
when used to calculate the energy consumed by a component.
• For example, a single 100 W light bulb connected for one hour will consume a
total of 100 watts x 3600 sec = 360,000 Joules.
• So prefixes such as kilojoules (kJ = 103J) or megajoules (MJ = 106J) are used
instead.
• If the electrical power is measured in "kilowatts" and the time is given in hours
then the unit of energy is in kilowatt-hours or kWh which is commonly called a
"Unit of Electricity" and is what consumers purchase from their electricity
suppliers.
 Capacitors
• Capacitance is typified by a parallel plate arrangement and is defined in
terms of charge storage:

• Q = magnitude of charge stored on each plate.

• V = voltage applied to the plates.
• Capacitors store electric charge.

• Capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals

but they block DC (constant) signals.
 Capacitance

• This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge.

• A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored.
• Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F.
• However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the
smaller values.
• Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and
p (pico):
• µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F
• n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF
• p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
 Charge and Energy Stored
• The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is
given by:
Charge,   Q = C × V   
• where: Q = charge in coulombs (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)
V = voltage in volts (V)
• When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:

Energy,   E = ½QV = ½CV²   

• where  E = energy in joules (J).
 Capacitive Reactance Xc
• Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition
to AC (alternating current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, , but
reactance is more complex than resistance because its value depends on
the frequency (f) of the electrical signal passing through the capacitor as
well as on the capacitance, C.

Capacitive reactance,   Xc =   1/2pi*f*c

  
where:   Xc = reactance in ohms
f    = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C   = capacitance in farads (F)
• The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies.
For steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition),
hence the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC.

• For example a 1µF capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k ohm for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 ohm.
 Charging a capacitor
• The capacitor (C) in the circuit diagram is being charged from a supply
voltage (Vs) with the current passing through a resistor (R).
• The voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is initially zero but it increases as
the capacitor charges. The capacitor is fully charged when Vc = Vs.
• The charging current (I) is determined by the voltage across the
resistor (Vs - Vc): Charging current,  I = (Vs - Vc) / R   (note that Vc is
increasing)
• At first Vc = 0V so the initial current, Io = Vs / R
• Vc increases as soon as charge (Q) starts to build up (Vc = Q/C), this
reduces the voltage across the resistor and therefore reduces the
charging current. This means that the rate of charging becomes
progressively slower.
 Time constant
• time constant  = R × C   
where:   time constant is in seconds (s)
R = resistance in ohms
C = capacitance in farads (F)

For example:
If R = 47k and C = 22µF, then the time constant, RC = 47k ohm × 22µF =
1.0s.

If R = 33k and C = 1µF, then the time constant, RC = 33k ohm × 1µF = 33ms.

A large time constant means the capacitor charges slowly. Note that the
time constant is a property of the circuit containing the capacitance and
resistance, it is not a property of a capacitor alone.
• The time constant is the time taken for the charging (or discharging)
current (I) to fall to 1/e of its initial value (Io).
• 'e' is the base of natural logarithms, an important number in mathematics
(like ). e = 2.71828 (to 6 significant figures) so we can roughly say that the
time constant is the time taken for the current to fall to 1/3 of its initial
value.
• After each time constant the current falls by 1/e (about 1/3).
• After 5 time constants (5RC) the current has fallen to less than 1% of its
initial value and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully charged,
Graphs showing the current and
voltage for a capacitor charging
• The bottom graph shows how the voltage (V) increases as the capacitor
charges. At first the voltage changes rapidly because the current is large;
but as the current decreases, the charge builds up more slowly and the
voltage increases more slowly.
• After 5 time constants (5RC) the capacitor is almost fully charged with its
voltage almost equal to the supply voltage. We can reasonably say that
the capacitor is fully charged after 5RC, although really charging continues
for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
 Discharging a capacitor

• The graph shows how the current (I) decreases as the capacitor discharges. The
initial current (Io) is determined by the initial voltage across the capacitor (Vo) and
resistance (R):
• Initial current,  Io = Vo / R.
• Note that the current graphs are the same shape for both charging and discharging
a capacitor. This type of graph is an example of exponential decay.
• The graph shows how the voltage (V) decreases as the capacitor
discharges.
• At first the current is large because the voltage is large, so charge is lost
quickly and the voltage decreases rapidly. As charge is lost the voltage is
reduced making the current smaller so the rate of discharging becomes
progressively slower.
• After 5 time constants (5RC) the voltage across the capacitor is almost zero
and we can reasonably say that the capacitor is fully discharged, although
really discharging continues for ever (or until the circuit is changed).
 Inductance
• The property of inductance might be described as "when any piece
of wire is wound into a coil form it forms an inductance which is
the property of opposing any change in current". Alternatively it
could be said "inductance is the property of a circuit by which
energy is stored in the form of an electromagnetic field".
• We said a piece of wire wound into a coil form has the ability to
produce a counter emf (opposing current flow) and therefore has a
value of inductance. The standard value of inductance is the Henry,
a large value which like the Farad for capacitance is rarely
encountered in electronics today.
• Typical values of units encountered are milli-henries mH, one
thousandth of a henry or the micro-henry uH, one millionth of a
henry.
• A small straight piece of wire exhibits inductance
(probably a fraction of a uH) although not of any
major significance until we reach UHF frequencies.
• The value of an inductance varies in proportion to
the number of turns squared. If a coil was of one
turn its value might be one unit. Having two turns
the value would be four units while three turns
would produce nine units although the length of
the coil also enters into the equation.
 Inductance formula
• The standard inductance formula for close approximation - imperial and metric is:
• imperial measurements

L = r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len )

where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in inches
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil in inches

metric measurements

L = 0.394r2 X N2 / ( 9r + 10len )

where:
L = inductance in uH
r = coil radius in centimetres
N = number of turns
len = length of the coil in centimetres
 Reactance of an Inductor
• Inductive reactance (symbol XL) is a measure of a Inductance
opposition to AC (alternating current). Like resistance it is
measured in ohms, , but reactance is more complex than
resistance because its value depends on the frequency (f) of
the electrical signal passing through the inductor as well as on
the inductance, L.

• XL = 2*pi*f*L  
 where:   XL = reactance in ohms
f    = frequency in hertz (Hz)
L   = inductance in henrys (H)  
• XL is small at low frequencies and large at high
frequencies.
• For steady DC (frequency zero), XL is zero (no
opposition),
• hence the rule that inductors pass DC but block high
frequency AC.
• For example: a 1mH inductor has a reactance of only
0.3 for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its
reactance is 63.
 Series and parallel of Resistance

• In this lesson we will look at two recurring resistor combinations, series

combinations and parallel combinations. 

• Those are common combinations, not only for resistors but other
elements as well.  (For example, we can speak of "a resistor in series with
a capacitor".)
 Series Resistance
• Two elements are said to be in series whenever the same current physically flows
through both of the elements. 
• The critical point is that the same current flows through both resistors when two
are in series. 
• The particular configuration does not matter. 
• The only thing that matters is that exactly the same current flows through both
resistors. 
• Current flows into one element, through the element, out of the element into the
other element, through the second element and out of the second element. 
• No part of the current that flows through one resistor "escapes" and none is
added.  This figure shows several different ways that two resistors in series might
appear as part of a larger circuit diagram.
• Series Circuits:
• Voltage drops add to equal total voltage.
• All components share the same (equal) current.
• Resistances add to equal total resistance.
• An example of series resistors is in house wiring.  The leads from the
service entrance enter a distribution box, and then wires are strung
throughout the house.  The current flows out of the distribution box,
through one of the wires, then perhaps through a light bulb, back through
the other wire.  We might model that situation with the circuit diagram
shown below.
•   Let us consider the simplest case of a series resistor connection, the case
of just two resistors in series.  We can perform a thought experiment on
these two resistors.  Here is the circuit diagram for the situation we're
interested in.

• Imagine that they are embedded in an opaque piece of plastic, so that we only
have access to the two nodes at the ends of the series connection, and the middle
node is inaccessible. If we measured the resistance of the combination, what
would we find?  To answer that question we need to define voltage and current
variables for the resistors.  If we take advantage of the fact that the current
through them is the same
• Note that we have defined a voltage across each resistor (Va and Vb)
and current that flows through both resistors (Is) and a voltage
variable, Vs, for the voltage that appears across the series
combination.
•   Let's list what we know.
• The current through the two resistors is the same.
• The voltage across the series combination is given by:
Vs = Va + V b
• The voltages across the two resistors are given by Ohm's Law:
Va = I s Ra
V b = I s Rb
• We can combine all of these relations, and when we do that we find
the following. Vs= Va + Vb
• Vs= Is Ra  + Is Rb
• Vs= Is (Ra  + Rb)
• Vs= Is Rseries
 Parallel Resistance
• The other common connection is two elements in parallel.  Two resistors
or any two devices are said to be in parallel when the same voltage
physically appears across the two resistors. Schematically, the situation is
as shown below.

• Parallel Circuits:
• All components share the same (equal) voltage.
• Branch currents add to equal total current.
• Resistances diminish to equal total resistance.
• Note that we have defined the voltage across both resistor (Vp) and
the current that flows through each resistor (Ia and Ib) and a voltage
variable, Vp, for the voltage that appears across the parallel
combination.         Let's list what we know.
• The voltage across the two resistors is the same.
• The current through the parallel combination is given by:
Ip= Ia + Ib
• The currents through the two resistors are given by Ohm's Law:
Ia = Vp /Ra
Ib = Vp /Rb
• We can combine all of these relations, and when we do that we find the
following. Ip= Ia + Ib
• Ip= Vp /Ra + Vp /Rb
• Ip= Vp[ 1/Ra + 1/Rb]
• Ip= Vp/Rparallel
• Here, we take Rparallel to be the parallel equivalent of the two resistors in
parallel, and the expression for Rparallel is:
1/Rparallel = 1/Ra  + 1/Rb        
There may be times when it is better to rearrange the expression for
Rparallel. 
The expression can be rearranged to get:
Rparallel = (Ra*Rb)/(Ra + Rb)
     
Either of these expressions could be used to compute a parallel equivalent
resistance.  The first has a certain symmetry with the expression for a
series equivalent resistance.
• Ra = 1500 W
• Rb = 3000 W
• Rc = 2000 W
• Rd = 1000 W
• Vs = 12 v
 Series and parallel capacitors
• When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than
any one of the series capacitors' individual capacitances.
• If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the overall effect is that
of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of the plate
spacing's of the individual capacitors.
• As we've just seen, an increase in plate spacing, with all other factors
unchanged, results in decreased capacitance.

• Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual
capacitors' capacitances. The formula for calculating the series total
capacitance is the same form as for calculating parallel resistances
• When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the
sum of the individual capacitors' capacitances.
• If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is
that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate
areas of the individual capacitors.
• As we've just seen, an increase in plate area, with all other factors
unchanged, results in increased capacitance.

• Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual
capacitors' capacitances. The formula for calculating the parallel total
capacitance is the same form as for calculating series resistances
• Example: Determine the total capacitance of a series circuit containing
three capacitors whose values are 0.01 mF, 0.25 mF, and 50,000 pF,
respectively.
• Example: Determine the total capacitance in a parallel capacitive circuit
containing three capacitors whose values are 0.03 mF, 2.0 mF, and 0.25
mF, respectively.