Explain the Meaning of Shelf-

life
•Length of Time that corresponds to a tolerable loss in
the quality of a processed food; Quality is no longer
guaranteed
•Expiration date is where both quality and safety is
compromised
•Manufacturers are strategic in placing the shelf-life
date on products instead of expiration date in order to
get the consumer to consume the product quickly and
purchase more
F.3.2 Discuss the Factors that Affect the Shelf Life and Quality of Food

Factors Affecting the Shelf Life

and Quality of Food
 Water content- loss of nutrients, browning and rancidity. Dry
foods will spoil if they absorb water due to the microbacterium
 Chemical change (change in pH)- off flavours, colour changes,
browning and loss of nutrients
 Light- rancidity, vitamin loss and fading of natural colours
 Temperature- higher temperature increases the rate of other
forms of spoilage
 Exposure to air- increases the rate of oxidation
 Presence of bacteria, enzymes and chemical reactants in the
product
 That’s why we have refrigerators, store it in cupboards, use
dark canisters and have special inert gases injected into
products that are crispy
 F.3.3 Describe the Rancidity of Fats

Rancidity of Fats

 Rancidity generally occurs in fats and is

perceived by our senses as when they have
gone ‘off’- disagreeable smell, taste, texture or
appearance
 Can be caused by enzymes secreted by bacteria
or through oxidation
 Hydrolytic Rancidity

•Associated with the presence of water

•Of the three major components of food (fats/lipids,
carbohydrates, and protein), lipids are most responsible
for rancidity
•Results in the formation of fatty acids
•Conditions: when food is contaminated by bacteria and
heated
 Steps in Production of Food
Raw Materials
Chemical reactions for
rancidity begin
Processing

Packaging

Storage and Distribution

Rancidity begins to appear
Consumption
 Hydrolytic Rancidity

•Water and fat can come together for months without reaction
•Rate of reaction between the two are only significant when a
suitable catalyst is present and temperature is raised
•Typical catalyst include lipase enzymes and acidic enzymes
 Hydrolysis of Triglyceride by
Water

•Reactant: fat and water

•catalyst: lipase which is a water-soluble enzyme that
catalyzes the hydrolysis of ester chemical bonds
•Product: glycerol and fatty acids- very volatile and have
unpleasant odors and flavors which causes rancidity
Examples of Fatty Acids Causing
Rancidity

•Butanoic acid (in butter), hexanoic acid and octanoic acid

•Plamitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid – gives chocolate an
oily or fatty flavour
•Lauric acid –gives palm and coconut oil in cocoa butter
substitutes a soapy flavour (their sodium salts are soaps)
•Good fatty acids include Omega 3 found in foods such as fish
oil (best source), flax seed oil, hemp oil, walnut, tofu, eggs
beans
Omega 3
Butter and Butanoic Acid
Lauric Acid in Cocoa Butter
 Flavour Threshold

•Fatty acids products of hydrolysis of chocolate are

palmitic, stearic and oleic acids
•Flavour threshold of 50 mg/kg and are usually described
as fatty or oily
•Hydrolysis of butter and milk produce short chain acids
such as butanoic, hexanoic etc. with flavour thresholds of
1-10 mg/kg
•Thus hydrolytic rancidity is more important in animal fats
than for vegetable fats
 Oxidative Rancidity
•Due to the oxidation of the carbon-carbon bonds in
unsaturated fatty acids
•Via a free radical process, the double bonds undergo a
cleavage (breakdown), releasing volatile aldehydes and
ketones
•Catalyzed by transition metal ions (copper and iron) and
accelerated by presence of light; metal ions are trace
contaminants of oils that have been processed or stored in
metal vessels
•Metalloproteins such as hemoglobin and chlorophyll from
meat products and vegetables can be source of copper,
manganese, magnesium and iron
Mechanism for Oxidative
Rancidity

                                                                                                                                        
 Free Radical Chain Reaction

Initiation: RH R- + H-

Propagation: R- + O2 ROO-

Termination: ROO- + RH ROOH + R-

•Light especially UV, accelerates the initiation stage of
lipid oxidation
•Hydroperoxides are decomposed by radiation, thermal
energy, metal catalysis or enzyme activity to form
additional radicals; lead to further reaction to form hydroxy
acids, keto acids, aldehydes which cause the rancid odor
Items that undergo Oxidative
Rancidity
 Oxidative Rancidity (cont.)
•Not all flavours from oxidation give off unpleasant smells/tastes
•Aldehydes with unsaturation at the 2 position are sweet and
pungent at shorter chain length and sweet, fatty and green at longer
chain lengths
•Aldehydes with conjugated saturation at the 2 and 4 positions are
noted for as sweet and oily
•These 2-4 denials with chain length of 8 to 12 carbons make a
positive contribution to the flavour of chocolate
F. 3.5 Describe ways to
minimize the rate of rancidity
and prolong the shelf life of
food.
 1. Processing
Examples include:
• limiting lipase hydrolysis by storing dairy
products at low temperatures (refrigeration)
• reducing light levels during storage or
storing in coloured glass
• keeping moisture levels low during
processing
(adding salt or sugar, smoking).
 2. Packaging
•using an inert gas, which minimizes contact
with oxygen, by covering food
• using low-gas-permeability packaging film
or
hermetic sealing
• minimizing the amount of air in the
headspace
above oil and canning.
 3. Adding Additives
• sodium sulfite, sodium hydrogensulfite and citric acid
to delay the onset of non-enzymic browning
• sodium and potassium nitrite and nitrate for curing
meats, fixing colour and inhibiting microorganisms
• sodium benzoate and benzoic acid as antimicrobial
agents in fruit juices, carbonated
beverages, pickles and • sorbic acid, propanoic acid,
calcium propanoate
and sodium propanoate for delaying mould and bacterial
growth in breads and cheeses
• ethanoic acid and benzoic acid for delaying mould and
bacterial growth in pickled meats and fish products, and
also adding to flavour.
 F.3.6 Describe the traditional
methods
used by different cultures to extend
the shelf life of foods.
Methods include fermentation,
preserving, pickling, salting, adding
sugar, and smoking.
 1. Fermentation
 Used to lower pH to a level which inhibits
bacterial and enzymatic activity
 Fermentation involves using “good”
microorganisms to grow in foods.
 Involves adding a starter organism to the
food, and allowing it to mature until the pH is
low enough to prevent further deterioration
of the food
 Fermentation requires specific starting pH
and temperature conditions
 1. Fermentation
 the “good” microorganisms often operate
by eating away at spoilage-sensitive parts
of the food, and releasing chemical by
products, thus often changing physical
properties of the food including texture
and taste
 Examples include cheese and wine
fermentation
 1. Fermentation
 Cheese fermentation:
 Lactobacilli is added to cheese as a starter, and
it digests milk lactose, and releases lactic acid.
 Lactic acid then reacts with an added enzyme to
curdle the milk.
 The cheese-maker drains off the whey and
compacts the curds, and then various microbes
are further added to help ripen this product into
mature cheese
 1. Fermentation
 Wine Fermentation:
 Yeasts are added to crushed grapes
 Yeasts then eat away at the grape’s
sugars, and release alcohol as the
chemical by-product.
 2. Preserving
 Includes canning, freezing, drying, and
vacuum sealing foods.
 The canning process involves using heat
to kill off microorganisms .
 Freezing process involves freezing food so
that most chemical and biological
processes (including that of the
surrounding microorganisms) are stopped.
 2. Preserving
 Drying process involves taking out
moisture from the food, since
microorganisms all need moisture to
survive.
 Vacuum sealing process involves taking
away the oxygen that microorganisms
need to survive.
 3. Pickling
 Can be done by preserving food by
anaerobic fermentation in brine (solution
of salt in water) to produce lactic acid
 Can be done by marinating and storing it
in acidic solution, usually vinegar.
 This is what gives pickles its sour taste!
 In acidic foods such as pickles, the growth
of bacteria and fungi is greatly slowed.
 4. Smoking
 Smoke is an antimicrobial and an antioxidant
 Smoking process involves passing smoke-
filled air produced from a flame, usually
burning on wood, over the food.
 Smoking process usually is not effective by
itself for preservation process, and needs to
be coupled with another preservation process
(which would very often be drying)
 This is because smoke only touches the
surface of the food
 4. Smoking
 Smoking is very often practiced for the
taste it produces
 Wood smoke produces over 400 chemical
compounds, including methanal, which is
a significant antimicrobial
 However, wood smoke also produces
carcinogens such as 3,4 benzpyrene
 5. Salting
 Salting is used as a form of preservation
because most bacteria, fungi or any pathogen
cannot survive in highly salty conditions
 This is because when bacteria is in contact with
concentrated solution of salt, water passes
through the cell membrane out of the bacteria
into the solution through osmosis.
 Then, the bacteria cells become dehydrated,
and are unable to undergo cell division
 6. Adding Sugar
 Foods such as jams and condensed milk
are protected from fungal moulds because
of their high concentration of sugar.
 If the surface of the jam is exposed and
water condenses there, the surface
concentration of sugar can be reduced to
a level where fungal moulds can grow.
F.3.7 Define the term antioxidant.

• “Anti” means against, “oxidant” refers to the

chemical process of oxidation.
• “Antioxidant” therefore suggests going against
the process of oxidation
• The term antioxidant can be defined as “a
molecule or substance that delays the
onset or slows the rate of oxidation,
effectively extending the shelf life of
foods.”
Antioxidants
• Antioxidants are found naturally and
synthetically
• In natural conditions, animals and plant
tissues can produce their own antioxidants,
but foods cannot, and oxidation is bound to
follow from exposure to both air and sunlight
• Oxidation of food causes nutrient loss, and
changes in chemical composition
• Oxidation of fats and oils causes rancidity
Antioxidants

• Oxidation of food can also lead to colour

changes of the food
• For example, the flesh of an apple:
F.3.8 List Examples of Common Naturally Occurring Antioxidants and Their Sources

Common Natural Antioxidants and

Their Sources
• Naturally occurring antioxidants include:
• vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in citrus fruits, green peppers,
broccoli, green leafy vegetables, strawberries,
redcurrants and potatoes
• Characterised by the cyclic or ring compound created
from the reaction between –COOH and –OH groups in a
molecule; molecule of water is eliminated in process
VITAMIN C
Vitamin E
• Vitamin E (tocopherols) found in wheatgerm, nuts, seeds, whole
grains, green leafy vegetables, vegetable oils (canola) and soya
bean
• Tocopherols are antioxidants that demonstrate vitamin E activity
• Characterized by chromanol ring with hydroxyl group that can
donate hydrogen atom to reduce free radicals
• 8 forms of Vitamin E (4 tocopherols and 4 tocotrienols) with
α(alpha)-tocopherol most common and preferentially absorbed by
humans

α-tocopherol
VITAMIN E
β-carotene

• Found in carrots, squash, broccoli, sweet

potatoes, tomatoes, kale, cantaloupe, melon,
peaches and apricots
Selenium
• Found in fish, shellfish, red meat, eggs, grains,
chicken and garlic
• Present at active site where enzymes prevent
lipids from auto-oxidation in cell membranes
• Required in pancreas for digestion and
absorption of lipids, including vitamin E
F.3.9 Compare the Structural Features of the Major Synthetic Antioxidants in Food

Structural Features of Major

Synthetic Antioxidants in Food
1) Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA)- composed
from 2- and 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole
2) Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT)
3) Propyl Gallate (PG) formed by esterification of
gallic acid and propanol
4) Trihydroxybutyrophenone (THBP)
5) Tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ)
Synthetic Antioxidants
 Trihydroxybutyrophenone
(THBP)

• They all contain a phenolic group and

most contain a carbon atom bonded
directly to three methyl groups
• The phenolic and tertiary butyl group are
free radical scavengers that react with and
remove the free radicals involved in the
oxidation of the food
• Therefore they help to prolong shelf life
F.3.10 Discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages Associated with Natural and Synthetic Antioxidants.

Advantages of Antioxidants

• Vitamins C- reduce risk of cancer and

heart disease by inhibiting formation of
free radicals, is vital for production of
hormones and collagen
• Vitamin E and carotenoids also reduce risk
of cancer and heart disease
• β –carotene helps with vitamin A synthesis
Disadvantages of Antioxidants
• People think that synthetic antioxidants are less
safe since they are artificial
• Natural antioxidants are more expensive and
less effective and can add unwanted colour and
leave an aftertaste
• Synthetic antioxidants are food additives, so
they must be regulated by policies and
legislation to remain safe- in developing
countries, policies are less strict
• Always too much of something is not good!
 Antioxidants in Traditional Foods
•Western Culture: Cranberries, Blueberries, Chocolate, Red
wine
•When red wine is made, the skins and seeds fermenting in the
grape juice create high levels of resveratrol
•Phenols are radical scavengers that reduce the free radicals that
damage cells and also prevent fat from clogging arteries
•Through research dark chocolate has been found to
contain four times the amount of antioxidants than
tea

Theobromine
•Berries’ Powerful Antioxidants

Catechin

Anthocyanins
•Eastern Culture: Ginseng, Green Tea, Tumeric
•Contain large quantities of polyphenolic substances; tea
leaves‘ferment’ and undergo polymerization
•Foods of both cultures have high capabilities in modulating
human metabolism in a favourable manner for reducing the
likelihood of cancer