3.

Experimentation
 VARIABLES
 INDEPENDENT VARIABLE  DEPENDENT
 Presumed cause VARIABLE
 Stimulus  Presumed effect
 Predicted from  Response
 Antecedent  Predicted to..
 Manipulated  Consequences
 Predictor  Measured outcome
 Criterion
 A RESEARCH INVESTIGATION IN WHICH
CONDITIONS ARE CONTROLLED
 ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS
MANIPULATED (SOMETIMES MORE THAN
ONE)
 ITS EFFECT ON A DEPENDENT VARIABLE
IS MEASURED
 TO TEST A HYPOTHESIS
Experimentation
 Purpose of experimentation is to
evaluate cause-effect relationship
among variables
 At least 2 conditions should be satisfied:
 There must be Concomitant variation
between cause and effect. For e.g.

To establish smoking causes cancer we should
demonstrate that increase in smoking was
followed by increase in cancer.
 Cause must precede effect
Experimentation
 Variables that cause effect are
called independent variables
 Variables that are affected are
called dependent variables
Experimentation
 Selected independent variables
that are of interest to us in finding
cause-effect relationship are called
factors
 Other independent variables are
called confounding variables
Experimentation
 For e.g.:
 Dependent variable: sale
 Factor: cash discount to stockists
 Confounding variables: advtsg. Exp,
incentive to field force.
Experimentation
 Major difference between
experimentation & other research
is the researcher’s ability to
manipulate factors and control
effects of confounding variables
Basic issues in
experimentation
 While conducting experiments,
researcher should tackle following
issues:
 Decide factor levels (treatments)
 Selection & measurement of
dependent variable
 Control over confounding variables
Experimental treatments are the
alternative manipulations of
the independent variable being
investigated.
Factor levels
 Various levels/categories of factors
are called treatments. For e.g.
 Marketing Manager wants to find
impact of offering higher cash
discount to stockiest on sale.
Question is what % cash discounts
should be tried?
 Music and productivity
Selection of dependent
variable
 Selection of dependent variable
depends on cause-effect
relationship. For e.g.
Purpose Dep.
variable
To see effectiveness Sale
of cash discount on
sale
To see effectiveness -Units produced
-Time taken
of training methods -Wastage
on productivity
TEST UNITS
TEST UNITS -
subjects or
entities whose
response to the
experimental
treatment are
measured or
observed.
 WHEN IS AN EXPERIMENT
INTERNAL VALIDITY?
•Internal validity - the ability of an
experiment to answer the question of
whether the experimental treatment was
the sole cause of changes in a dependent
variable

•Did the manipulation do what it was

supposed to do?
Control over confounding
variables
 Control over confounding variables
is obtained by
 Matching of test units
 Randomization
 Blind tests
 Control group
 Counterbalancing
Matching test units
 Researcher can make sure that
entities in each group are matched
on the basis of pertinent
characteristics
Randomization
 Test units are assigned to treatments
randomly
 Randomization assist in ‘averaging’ the
effect of confounding variables on
dependent variable.
 This method is used when researcher
does not have information on
confounding variables
 Blind tests
 Researcher can blind the respondent on
confounding variables. For e.g.
 Two soft drinks are offered to consumers to
evaluate soft drinks taste. Marketers know that
brand name & packaging can affect perceived
taste. Effect of brand name & packaging are
confounding variables. Their effect will be
eliminated by offering both drinks in plain white
packaging. Such tests are called blind tests. If
experimenter & subjects are both blind, it is called
double-blind test
Control group
 Researcher makes two groups.
 Treatment is given to one group. Such group
is called experimental group
 Other group is not given treatment. It is called
control group
 Results of both groups are compared to find
effect of treatment. For e.g.
Control Group
 Doctor’s assurance to patient also
plays a role in making patient feel
better.
 To eliminate this effect drug is given
to experimental group & placebo is
given to control group
 Results of experimental group are
compared with control group
Counterbalancing
 In some experiments, order of assigning
treatments has impact on dependent
variable. For e.g.
 a worker may perform better in second task
simply because he would have acquired
experience in first task
 In such situation, half the respondents
are assigned to treatment A first and
then to B. The other half receives
treatment B first & then A.. This is called
counterbalancing.
ISSUES OF EXPERIMENTAL
VALIDITY
 History effect
 Maturation effect
 Testing effect
 Instrumentation effect
 Selection effect
 Mortality effect
Types of Experimental
Designs
We will use following symbols in studying
types of experimental designs:
X = Objects are exposed to treatment
O = Observation of dependent variable.
Subscripts will be given to differentiate
observations (O1, O2,……)
R = Random assignment of test units to
treatments.
Classification of expt.
design

•Basic expt. design

•Complex expt. design

1. After-only without
control group/ one shot
design
 This design is
X O1
 Objects are exposed to treatment
& observations are taken after
exposure.
 Employees education campaign
about financial condition
2. Before-After without
Control Group/pretest-
posttest design
 This design is
O1 X O2
 This design offers comparison of
same object before & after
treatment
 Treatment effect is (O2 – O1)
3. After only with one
Control Group/static group
design
The design is
Experimental Group X O1
Control Group O2

 Effect of treatment is (O1 – O2)

 It makes assumption that
measurements in two groups before
experiment are equal
Three good experimental design

4. Before-After with One Control

Group
 The design is
Experimental Group R O1 X O2
Control Group R O3 O4

 Treatment effect is (O2 – O1) – (O4 – O3)

 Allows for slightly unequal groups in
terms of key variable (i.e. O1 ≠ O3)
5. After only with One
Control Group with
Randomization
 The design is
Experimental Group R X O1
Control Group R O2
 Treatment effect is (O – O )
1 2
 Used when groups pre-treatment
observations are not possible
Complex Designs
 These are statistical designs
 These designs are:
 Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
 Randomized Block Design (RBD)
 Factorial Design
 Latin Square Design
1. Completely Randomized
Design
 In this design, units are randomly
assigned to treatments
 Factor is manipulated. For e.g.
 Four training methods for CAT are to be
tested. There are 40 students in sample.
These students are randomly assigned to
training methods. Their CAT scores are then
recorded. Here, training method is
independent variable. Four methods are
treatments. CAT score is dependent variable
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE A

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Group A Group B Group C

 Completely Randomized Designs

Control: Experimental Experimental

no music treatment: treatment:
slow music fast music
Average minutes 16 18 12
shopper spends
in store
 Completely Randomized Design

With a posttest
Group A R X1 O1

Group B R X2 O2

Group C R X3 O3
 Completely Randomized Design

With a posttest
Group A R X1 O1

Group B R X2 O2

Group C R X3 O3
Randomized block design

 An extension of the completely

randomized design in which a
single extraneous variable that
might affect test units’ response to
the treatment has been identified
and the effects of this variable are
isolated by blocking out its effects.
. Randomized Block
Design
 This is a design in which effect of one
confounding variable is controlled. For e.g.:
 In previous example, student’s academic
discipline (Arts, Science, Commerce) might have
impact on CAT score
 In such case, groups (blocks) of Arts, Science &
Commerce students are made and four students
from each block are randomly assigned to four
methods. The design will look as follows:
 Randomized Block Design
Treatm Method MethodMethod Method
Block 1 2 3 4
Arts

Science

Commerce
. Randomized Block
Design
 By grouping students into
homogeneous blocks, effect of one
known confounding variable
i.e.academic discipline can be
isolated
 In this design, each block must
receive every treatment
 Randomized Block Design
Independent Variables

Control: Experimental Experimental

no music treatment treatment:
slow music fast music
Blocking variable

Mornings and
afternoons

Evening hours
Factorial Design
 In earlier two designs that we have
seen there was only one factor viz.
training method
 If we are interested to test the
effects of two or more factors, we
use factorial design
Factorial Design
 A Factorial design is denoted by levels of
each factor. For e.g.:
 If there are 3 factors where factor 1 has two
levels, factor 2 has four levels & factor 3 has
five levels, it is denoted as 2x4x5
 Effect of each factor on dependent variable
is called ‘Main Effect’
 In addition to measuring main effect,
Factorial design has advantage of
measuring interaction effect between two
factors
 Independent Variable 1
No Music Slow Music Fast Music
Independent Variable 2

No
cart signs

Grocery
cart signs
EFFECTS

 Main effect  Interaction effect

 The influence of  The influence on
a single a dependent
independent variable by
variable on a combinations of
dependent two or more
variable. independent
variables.
 2 x 2 Factorial Design

Ad A Ad B

Men 65
> Main Effects
of Gender

Women 65

70 60
>

Main Effects of Ad
LATIN SQUARE DESIGN

 A balanced, two-way
classification scheme that
attempts to control or block out
the effect of two or more
extraneous factors by restricting
randomization with respect to
the row and column effects.
Latin Square Design
 When we want to deal with two
confounding variables & factor, we
use Latin Square design
 A Latin Square has equal no. of
rows and columns such that an
alphabet appears only once in a
row & a column. For e.g. Latin
square of order 3 will be as follows:
Latin Square Design

1 2 3

I A B C

II B C A

III C A B
Latin Square Design
 Suppose, we feel that academic
discipline viz. Arts, Science,
Commerce & type of college viz. Fully
aided, partially aided, non-aided are
two confounding variables in
estimation effect of three methods of
training on CAT score, we will use
Latin square design as follows:
 Latin Square Design
Arts Science Commerce

Fully T1 T2 T3
aided
Partially T2 T3 T1
aided
Non- T3 T1 T2
aided
Latin Square Design
 Since each treatment has appeared in
Arts, Science & Commerce as well as in
fully aided, partially aided & non-aided
colleges, effects of two confounding
variables on CAT score can be
estimated & removed
 Here, we assume that interaction
between two confounding variables is
insignificant