m



0105EC061049
EC-5sem
ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,
BHOPAL

1
I would like to express my immense
gratitude towards Mr.Y P Tyagi for
providing me the opportunity to
undergo the practical training in the
Solar Photo-Voltaic Division (SPV) of
Central Electronics Limited. He
contributed his valuable time and guided
me from time to time throughout my 2
weeks of training.

I am also grateful to Mr. Anurag Madhur

for enhancing my practical approach.
I would like to thank all the visible and
non-visible hands which helped me to
complete the practical training with great
success.

2
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= The Company....................................5
= Introduction.......................................6
= Solar cells...........................................7
= Solar PhotoVoltaics..........................8
= Silicon..................................................9
= Terminology.....................................10
= Specifications...................................12
= Cells to modules............................1[
= Processing of solar cells...............14
= Applications....................................26
= Block diagram.................................29
= Advantages......................................[2

4
Central Electronics Ltd. is a public sector enterprise, under
the administrative control of the Dep't. Of Scientific &
Industrial Research.

CEL is a pioneer in the field of solar Photovoltaic in the

country and is today ranked among the first few in the
world in this area of activity. CEL is also credited with many
firsts in the country, professional Ferrites being one of
them.

CEL is presently engaged in the development, production

and sale of selected electronic components (Professional
Ferrites, Electronics Ceramics and Phase Shifters), selected
electronic systems, solar photovoltaic cells, modules and
SPV systems and to take up engineering development &
production based on indigenous technology developed
through house efforts or know how from National
Laboratories / Institutions.

The Operations of the company are divided into three

Business Groups. Ô
  
   (SPVG),
Ô
    (SG) and
   (CG).

5
Now a days capital consumption of energy is
considered a status symbol in a civilized
country. However this energy is limited in
the earth crust and it also pollutes the
atmosphere while conversion from fossil fuel
to electricity.
Therefore the world now is thinking of some
other alternative sources of energy which
should be clean, perennial, sustainable and
ever lasting.
Solar Energy is one of the most easily
available renewable source of energy and is
in plenty.
Hence we now work to find out successful
and efficient ways to tap this solar energy for
our needs.CEL uses solar energy in all its
modules and systems . The products are
efficient and bring about self sufficiency of
power.

6
WHAT ARE SOLAR CELLS?
The solar cells are thin wafers of silicon.
As Silicon is the most abundant material
on the earth after oxygen.
The sunlight incident on these cells is
gathered and converted into current or
electrical energy which is either directly
used or stored into battery for further
use. The fuel here is sunlight. There is
only initial cost of the installment of the
solar plant that requires large and has
minimal maintenance.
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12
 CELLS INTO MODULES

‡ONE SILICON CELL PRODUCES 0.5

VOLT

‡36 CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES

HAVE ENOUGH VOLTAGE TO CHARGE
12 VOLT BATTERY

‡MODULE IS BASIC BUILDING BLOCK

OF A SOLAR SYSTEM

‡MODULES CAN BE CONNECTED IN

SERIES or PARALLEL TO INCREASE
POWER.

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14
Ô





PURPOSE
The purpose of surface preparation is to ensure
that the wafers are cleaned & are free from
impurities such as glues, slurry & other organic &
inorganic impurities these impurities may affect
the electrical performance of the solar cell.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Silicon Wafer, cassettes, D I water, H F solution,
NaOH solution.

PROCEDURE
The p-type single crystal having pseudo square
shape is loaded in cassettes. The cassettes are
then placed in stainless steel coated jig. This jig
is then transferred to process tank, which contain
NaOH solution for fixed time. After this, the jig
is transferred to running pressurized DI water
for few minutes. Now transfer this jig to
process tank containing HF solution for minutes.
Now the Silicon wafers are ready for polishing.

15
PRECAUTIONS:
Use surgical gloves & mask while processing the silicon
wafer.
Use cotton gloves while loading the wafer in the
cassettes.

Ô   
Ô 

PURPOSE
a) Polishing:
The purpose of polishing is to ensure that the wafers
that the wafer surface is free from any saw cut marks. It
shall result in a polished & smooth surface.
b) Texturisation:
The purpose of texturisation is to get maximum
absorption of sunlight and uniform texturisation
surface on silicon wafer by formation of tiny
pyramids.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Polished Wafers, NaOH solution, DI water, HCL
solution, HF solution

PROCEDURE
The cassettes after fixing with the help of retainer
are loaded in a jig with a retainer so that they do
not float in the solution. The jig is transferred to
NaOH solution & IPA solution under running
pressurized DI water for fix time. This is again
transferred to process tank containing HCL solution
for fixed time. This is again transferred to process
tank containing HF solution at fixed temperature
for particular time. After that they are dried. 16
PRECAUTIONS:
Use weighting balance for NaOH & measuring flask for other
chemical for solution preparation.
Check the temperature of the process tank regularly.
Use gloves & tweezers to handle the wafers.

Ô

PURPOSE:
This process forms a negative junction over the p-type substrate.
This, therefore, make a p-n junction.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Diffusion paste, Furnace, Tweezers.

PROCEDURE
The texturised wafer is placed on printing chuck.The diffusion
paste is transferred on the silicon wafer with the help of screen
by using squeeze. The printed wafers are then placed on the belt
of diffusion furnace by using tweezers.The diffused wafers are
then collected on the receiver & undiffused wafer side is
marked by quartz for identifications of p-type.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use cotton / nylon gloves while printing the wafers in
cassettes.
The diffusion furnace having different temperature at various
zones.
Print chuck should be clean.
Keep the diffusion paste bottle mouth covered to avoid any
contamination.

17
È
Ô 
 Ô 

 

PURPOSE
The purpose of the plasma etching is to ensure that n-
type & p-type surface of the diffuse wafer are isolated
from each other.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Plasma etching machine, Freon gas, Oxygen gas, Nitrogen
gas.

PROCEDURE
Diffused wafer are arranged in a coin stack & loaded
in a jig of Al. The jig is then placed in a plasma
chamber under perforated Aluminum base plate. Select
the appropriate recipe and evacuate the chamber.The
gas and RF generator is switched on for plasma. The
plasma cycles are completed in fixed time & after
then they are unloaded & then kept in a thermo Cole
box.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use surgical/cotton gloves while handling the wafers.
The operation time has to be noted carefully in a case
of power failure so that it does not exceed the
actual time cycle.

18
Ô
Ô  ÔÔ
  :

PURPOSE
After diffusion, a thick insulation layer of phosphorus
glass is formed on the diffused surface, which needs to
be cleaned.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
HF solution, DI water.

PROCEDURE
The plasma etched wafer are loaded in cassette. The
cassettes are then dipped in HF solution-1 by using
the Teflon handle. They are again dipped into HF
solution-2 & move up & down to remove the
phosphorus glass. The cassettes are then transferred to
DI water for rinse.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use surgical gloves before carrying out the operation.
Do not leave the diffused wafer in concentrated
HF solution for some time.

19
Ô Ô
 

PURPOSE
The purpose is to ensure that edge isolated wafer
surface is thoroughly cleaned for removing the type
of contamination before sending the wafers for
oxide passivation in order to improve & maintain the
desired open circuit voltage of the solar cell.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Ammonia solution, Hydrogen peroxide, DI water, HCL &
HF solution.

PROCEDURE
The phosphorus glass cleaned wafers are loaded
in Teflon cassettes. These cassettes are then dipped in
the solution of NH[ & H2O2. These cassettes are then
transferred to rinsing tank containing DI water. These
cassettes are then dipped in HCL solution. They are
again transferred to DI water for rinse. The cassettes
are then dipped in HF solution for few minutes. After
that, they are finally rinsed in DI water. The wafers are
then dried in the rinse dryer.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use surgical gloves before carrying out the operation.
Use measuring flask to measure chemicals for
solution preparation.
Prepare fresh solution of NH[, H2O2, and HCL after
fixed number of cycles.
20
 ÔÔ 

PURPOSE
This process is to ensure the formation of SiO2 layer on
the diffused wafer. This layer passivates the diagonal
bonding of the Silicon, thereby reducing there
recombination velocity. This improves the electrical
properties of solar cells.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Quartz ladder boat, Oxygen gas.

PROCEDURE
The wafers are placed back to back in a quartz ladder
boat in such a way that the unmarked surface is
exposed for passivation. This boat is then placed
inside quartz tube using a glass rod having a high
temperature. Oxygen is allowed to pass though the
tube so that it forms a fixed thickness of SiO2 layer on
the silicon wafers.

PRECAUTIONS:
Keep a proper check on the flow of oxygen flow meters.
Use gloves, masks & tweezers during operation.

21

  


PURPOSE
This process shall ensure an efficient front metal
contact on n-side of the passive silicon wafers.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Polypropylene cassettes, Silver paste, Tweezers

PROCEDURE
The passive wafers are loaded in polypropylene
cassettes in such a way that the diffused side i.e., n-side of
the wafers are printed with the given pattern. Two such
cassettes are loaded in sender·s platform keeping its
n - diffused side upwards for printing. These wafers
are then passed through three infrared zones of
fixed temperature.The printed wafers is then obtained at
receiver.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use nylon/cotton gloves while loading the wafers.
Keep the rubber belt & print chuck clean.
Keep the Ag paste covered to avoid any contamination.

22
R
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PURPOSE
The wafers are printed back side with Ag Al just
parallel to Ag in front side to get proper back ohmic
contact & low series resistance of the cell.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Ag Al paste, Tweezers, Polypropylene cassettes.

PROCEDURE:
The passive wafers are loaded in polypropylene
cassettes in such a way that its p-side is to be
printed. Two such cassettes are loaded in sender·s
platform keeping its p - side upwards for printing .
Sensors senses the wafers & they are automatically
placed under the printing chuck.The paste is applied as
thick strips by using squeeze.Theses wafers are then
automatically passed on to belt having fixed speed. These
wafers are then passed through the heating furnaces of
different temperature range. The printed wafers are
then obtained at the receiver.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use nylon/cotton gloves while loading the wafers.
Keep the rubber belt & print chuck clean.
Keep the Ag Al paste covered to avoid any
contamination.

2[
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PURPOSE:
This process ensures a good back metal aluminum
contact on the p-side of the wafer.

MATERIAL REQUIRED:
Aluminum paste, Polypropylene cassettes.

PROCEDURE:
The wafers are loaded in polypropylene cassettes in
such a way that its p-side is to be printed. Two such
cassettes are loaded in a sender platform keeping its p-
side upwards for printing. Sensor senses the wafer &
they are automatically placed under the printing chuck.
Al paste is poured over the nylon screen pattern. The
remaining portion on the back side of the wafer is
pasted wit Al by using squeeze.These wafers are then
passed through the heating furnaces of different
temperature ranges. The printed wafers are then
obtained at the receiver.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use nylon/cotton gloves while loading the wafers.
Keep the rubber belt & print chuck clean.
Keep the Al paste covered to avoid any contamination.

24

 Ô 


PURPOSE:

This process ensures a good ohmic contact

between the paste and wafer otherwise no current
will flow through it. It also lowers the solar cell
resistance.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
Al baked wafer

PROCEDURE:
The printed wafers are placed on the belt having
fixed belt speed by using Tweezers in such a
manner that its n - side remains upside. These wafers
are passed through different furnace of temperature
ranges. The firing cells are obtained which are
transferred for testing.

PRECAUTIONS:
Use nylon/cotton gloves while loading the wafers.
Keep the rubber belt & print chuck clean.
Clean the stainless steel belt once in a month by vacuum
cleaner.

25
SPV INDOOR LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Home Lighting Systems

at Hospital in Namibia
2 or 4 numbers of 9W CFL of high luminous
efficiency (light output equivalent to a 60W
incandescent lamp) with built - in inverter. The system
comprises SPV Panel, charge controller , storage
battery and indoor luminaries.
CEL SPV Community systems are suitable for powering
lamps and a TV set . The system comprises SPV
panel , charge controller, storage battery and indoor
luminaries and a power point for TV set.

26
ÔÔÔ
 

These systems use a weatherproof 18-Watt or 20-

.Watt fluorescent tube light fittings . Two models SLS -
0[ and SLS-06 are available depending on hours of
operation in day

CEL's SPV Street Lights in Muscat, Oman

Compact Fluorescent Lamps(CFL) has the unique feature
of Switching 'ON' at dusk and 'OFF' at dawn
automatically.The system comprises SPV Panel,
battery and luminary fittings mounted suitably on a pole.

27
  

 

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28
 4 SYSTEM WITH BATTERY

SPV ARRAY
ARGE

ONTROLLER LOA4

BATTERY

4 SYSTEM WIT
OUT BATTERY

SPV ARRAY LOA4

29
 A SYSTEM

SPV ARRAY HARGE

ONTROLLER INVERTER

LOAD

BATTERY

[0
 Solar PV Power
Generator

A.C.
Inverter Load

Solar Charge D.C.

Array Controller Load

Battery

[1
 ADVANTAGES OF SPV

‡POLLUTION FREE - NO FOSSIL FUEL USED

‡NO FUEL OST

Sunlight is Available Freely

‡ FUEL IS ALREADY DELIVERD

Fuel i.e. Sunlight Is Already Delivered For Free All
Over The Planet·s Surface

‡NOISE FREE
No Moving Parts

‡LONG LIFE

‡MINIMAL MAINTENAN E
SPV Systems Require Very Minimal
Maintenance Because There Are No Moving
Parts. ompare To Diesel Powered System,
Wind Generators Or
ydro Powered Systems.
We can·t say NO maintenance since
occasionally battery maintenance is
required.

[2
‡RELIABLE
SPV Systems typically are not affected by
environmental effects such as lighting strikes,
high wind or blowing sand, humidity and heat,
or snow and ice. The key to reliability is quality
and simplicity. If high quality components are
used with the SPV Systems, and if component
count and complexity of the system design are
kept to a minimum, the chance of any failure
occurring is remarkably low.

‡ ENERGY IN4P4 
he Ability to reate Your Own lectrical Power,
Independent of Fossil Fuel Supplies or Utility
onnections

‡MO4AR
SPV Systems are Modular by design. More power
can be added to an existing system. Old Modules
can added to new ones without any penalty. As
demand grows more SPV Modules can be added
in later years.

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