Basic Instrumentation Guide

Basic Instrumentation
By
Eng. Mohamed Salah-Eldin
Wednesday, December 8, 2021 1

Course Contents
 Introduction to Measurement
 Process Variables & Primary Sensing

Elements

 Process Instruments
 Instrument Air Systems

PROCESS VARIABLES &
Primary Sensing Elements


The main four process variables
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Flow
 Level
All Engineers in the plant must understand these

variables in order to operate / maintain / Improve the
plant equipments

Pressure Measurement

:Pressure is
A measure of force applied onto a unit area
PRESSURE = FORCE DIVIDED BY AREA
 Example:
50 pounds
P
10 square inches
Then, P = 5 pounds per square inch (psi)

Pressure Measuring Units
S.I. UNITS IMPERIAL UNITS
mm Wc bar lnch Wc Lbf/in2 or (PSI) UNIT
703.1 0.06895 27.73 1 Lbf/in2 or (PSI)
25.4 2.487x10-3 1 0.03613 lnch Wc
10.22x103 1 402.1 14.504 bar
1 97.98x10-6 0.03937 1.422x10-3 mm Wc

Pressure Scales
 Gauge Pressure Scale:
The gauge pressure scale uses atmospheric
pressure as the starting point of all measurements.
(14.7psi at sea level).
 Absolute Pressure Scale:
Absolute pressure = gauge pressure + atmospheric
pressure.
 Vacuum Scale:
A perfect vacuum is a space that contains
absolutely no matter
The vacuum scale is used to measure pressures in
vessels which are below atmospheric pressure.

Relationship Between Absolute and Gage Pressure

Main Types of Pressure Measuring
:Sensors
1. Manometer (Liquid column instruments),
direct reading, for very low pressures.
2. Bourdon Tube Gauge (C shape, Spiral and
helix), for low and high pressures.
3. Diaphragm Gauge, for low pressures.
4. Bellows Gauge, for low pressure.
5. Electrical sensors ( i.e. capacitance, Strain
gauge, resonant wire or piezoelectric) for all
pressure ranges.

Main Types of Pressure Measuring
:Sensors
Local Pressure 1. Manometer

2. Bourdon Tube Gauge
Gauges in the 3. Diaphragm Gauge
Field 4. Bellows Gauge
Remote
sensors to send  Electrical sensors
Signals to CCR

U-Tube Manometers
 The mercury moves to either side of the
manometer, depending on the difference in
pressures at the two ends of the instrument

Bourdon Tube Gauge
 Bourdon tube changes in its shape due to

pressure changes
C-Shaped Bourdon Tube principle

Types of bourdon tubes
Spiral Boudon Spring Helix Bourdon tube

Diaphragm Gauge
 a change in pressure on a diaphragm causes

the indicating needle to change position

Diaphragm Gauge –
Two Inputs for Differential Pressure
difference in the two pressures determines the

pointer position

Bellows Gauge
 An increase in pressure causes the bellows

to expand. The expanding bellows will move
the pointer to indicate a higher pressure.
PISTON TYPE
 The pressure acts
directly on the piston
and compresses the
spring
 The position of the
piston is directly related
to the pressure

Glycerin filled PG

Strain-Gauge Sensors
 When metallic conductors or semiconductors are

subjected to mechanical strain, there is a change in
resistance

Capacitance Pressure Sensors
 Change in capacitance resulting from the movement of

an elastic element is proportional to the pressure applied
to the elastic element

Piezoelectric-type Sensor
 A certain class of crystals produce an electrical

signal when they are mechanically deformed.
 The voltage level of the signal is proportional to
the amount of deformation.
Pressure Transmitter

Pressure Transmitters
 available in gage
pressure, absolute
pressure and
differential pressure
 typically ±0.075%
range accuracy
 50:1 turndown

Electric Pressure Switches
 An electric pressure switch senses pressure and opens

or closes a switch element at a set pressure to signal
another electrical device.
 Pressure switches are set to trip at a certain point with

rising or falling pressure.
 When the pressure is returned to within the acceptable

range, the switch does not reset at exactly the same
point that it tripped.

Pressure Switches

Flow Measurement

Flow Rate
 Volumetric flow rate (Q) is defined as the
volume of fluid that passes a given point in a
pipe per unit of time.
Q = Av
 Mass flow rate (W) is the mass or weight

flowing per unit time.
W= ρQ

Flow Measuring Units
(examples for commonly used units)
 Volumetric Flow Rate:  Mass Flow Rate:
 GPM
(Gallons per Minute), Liquid  T/D
 LPM Tons per day
(Liters Per Minute), Liquid
 Cu Meters /Hr  Kg/ Hr
(Cubic Meters Per Hour), (Kilogram Per Hour)
Liquid or Gas
 CFD  Lb/Hr
(Cubic Feet Per Day), Gas (Pounds Per Hour)

Velocity Profiles
Re is the Reynolds number
Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000

Velocity Profiles
 For turbulent flow, after a sufficient straight

pipe run the flow profile becomes fully
developed
 “fully developed flow” is critical to good flow
measurement system design.
 In a fully developed flow, the velocity at the
center of the pipe is only about 1.2 times the
mean velocity.

Classifying Fluid Flow Measurement

Differential Pressure (DP)
 DP flowmeters can be used to measure
volumetric flow rate of most liquids, gases,
and vapors, including steam.
 DP flowmeters have no moving parts and are
easy to use.
 They create a nonrecoverable pressure loss
and lose accuracy when fouled.
 Flow measurement accuracy depends on
accuracy of the pressure measuring device.

DP Flowmeter Elements
F P
 creating a differential pressure proportional to the
square of the flow rate
Orifice Plate
 The Orifice Plate is the most common

differential pressure flow primary element.
 It is based on proven technology, has no
moving parts and is suitable for high
temperature and pressure applications.
 Orifice plates are recommended for clean
liquids, gases and low velocity steam flows.
 They are often chosen for their low initial
cost, simplicity of construction and ease of
installation.
Concentric Orifice

Orifice Plate with Pressure Profile

Integrated Differential Pressure
Orifice Meters

Rotameters (Variable Area
Flowmeter)
 The rotameter uses a varying restriction to keep

the difference in pressure constant.
 The varying restriction is made of a tapered tube
and a float.

Magnetic Flowmeter

Magnetic Flow Meter (Mag Meter)
•accurate to ±0.5% of rate

•fluid must meet minimum electrical
conductivity
•head losses are insignificant
•good for liquids and slurries
•upstream/downstream piping does not
affect reading
•linear over a 10:1 turndown

Vortex Shedding
 The frequency of vortices shed from a bluff body
placed in the flow stream is proportional to the
velocity of the fluid.
 Velocity times area gives the volumetric flowrate.
 Vortex flowmeters provide good measurement
accuracy with liquids, gases, or steam.
 They have no moving parts and are fouling tolerant.
 Vortex meters can be sensitive to pipeline noise and
require flow rates high enough to generate vortices.

Vortex Flowmeter
 detectors respond to
pressure oscillation with a
low voltage output signal
with same frequency as
the oscillation

Vortex Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeter Principles
 Principle of operation
 Doppler
 Time of flight
 Construction
 Clamp-on transducer
 Wetted transducer
 Applications
 Large pipes (cost)
 Flashing fluids
 Corrosive fluids
 Hazardous fluids
 Non-coating service

Time of Flight Operation

Time of Flight Operation
 the time of flight of the ultrasonic signal is measured
between two transducers—one upstream and one
downstream.
 The difference in elapsed time going with or against the
flow determines the fluid velocity.
 When the flow is zero, the time for the signal T1 to get to
T2 is the same as that required to get from T2 to T1.
 When there is flow, the effect is to boost the speed of the
signal in the downstream direction, while decreasing it in
the upstream direction.

Turbine Meter
 Fluid passing through a turbine flowmeter spins a

rotor.
 The rotational speed of the rotor is related to the
velocity of the fluid.
 Multiplying the velocity times the cross-sectional
area of the turbine provides the volumetric flow rate

Turbine Flow Meter
•accuracy is ±0.25% of rate

•good for clean liquids, gases
•5 to 10 pipe diameters
upstream/downstream
•10:1 turndown
•3 to 5 psig pressure drop

Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
 artificially introduce a
Coriolis acceleration
into the flowing stream
 measure mass flow by

detecting the resulting
angular momentum

Coriolis Flowmeter
 The angular velocity of the vibrating tube, in

combination with the mass velocity of the
flowing fluid, causes the tube to twist. The
amount of twist is measured with magnetic
position detectors, producing a signal, which
is linearly proportional to the mass flow rate
of every parcel and particle passing through
the sensor tube

Coriolis Flow Meter

Coriolis FT

Positive Displacement (PD)
 PD flowmeters measure the volumetric flow rate of a

liquid or gas by separating the flow stream into
known volumes and counting them over time.
 Vanes, gears, pistons, or diaphragms are used to
separate the fluid.
 PD flowmeters provide good to excellent accuracy
and are one of only a few technologies that can be
used to measure viscous liquids.
 However, they create a nonrecoverable pressure
loss and have moving parts subject to wear.

Straight Pipe Diameter Requirements
Flow Installation Rules of Thumb

Up-stream Down-stream
 Magnetic meter 5 2
 Mass flow meter 1 1
 Vortex meter 10 25
 Turbine meter 15 10
 Orifice plate 10 5
(Beta = .5)
 Orifice plate 15 5
(Beta = .7)
Level Measurement

Level Measurement
Level is another common process variable that is measured in many
industries. The method used will vary widely depending on the
.nature of the industry, the process, and the application
Inventory:
• a constant supply or storage of material
Control:
• continuous, batch, blending, and mixing control
• stabilize flow to the next process
Alarming:
• hi/lo limits, safety shut down
Data Logging:
• material quantities for inventory and billing purposes
and where regulatory requirements are necessary
?What is measured
The measured medium can be liquid, or solid

and stored in vessels (open/closed tanks),
silos, and bins
Units of level can be expressed in:

 feet (meters)
 gallons (liters)
 pounds (kilograms)
 cubic volume (ft3, m3)

Methods – Direct or Indirect (inferential)
 Hydrostatic Head
 Float
 Load Cells
 Magnetic Level Gauge
 Capacitance
Transmitters
 Magnetostrictive
 Ultrasonic
 Microwave
 Laser
 Radar
 Guided Wave Radar
 Dip Stick
 Vibration

Direct Methods
Direct methods sense the surface or interface of the
liquid and is not affected by changes in material
density (Specific Gravity)
Examples:
 Dip Stick
 Resistance Tapes
 Sight Glass
 Floats
 Ultrasonic

Indirect Methods (Inferential)
Indirect methods “infer” liquid level by measuring some other
physical parameter such as pressure or weight
Changing materials means a corrective factor must be used or
recalibrating the instrument
Examples:
 Hydrostatic head methods
 Load Cells
 Capacitance
 Conductivity

Selection Criteria
When determining the type of level sensor that should be used for a
given application, there are a series of questions that must be
answered:
 Open tank or closed tank?

 Can the level sensor be inserted into the tank or should it be
completely external? Contact or non-contact?
 Continuous measurement or point measurement?
 Direct or Indirect measurement?
 What type of material is being measured? Liquid or Solid? Clean
or Slurry?

Dip Stick
 Simple and cheap
 Can be used with any wet
material and not affected by
density.
 Can not be used with
pressurized tanks
 Visual indication only
(electronic versions are
available)

Resistance Tape
The pressure of the fluid in the tank causes the tape to short-
circuit, thus changing the total resistance of the measuring tape.
An electronic circuit measures the resistance; it's directly
related to the liquid level in the tank.

Sight Glass
Another simple direct

method of
measuring liquids.
Can be used in
pressurized tanks
(as long as the glass
or plastic tube can
handle the pressure)

Magnetic Level Sensors
Used where the sight

glass level gauge can
not be.
Magneto-resistive types
can provide an
electrical output.
Liquid/liquid interface (such as water and oil) can be measured by changing

the buoyancy of the magnetic float

Magnetic Level Indicator

Floats
Float rides the surface level to provide the measurement.
Many different styles are available.
Liquid density does not affect measurement

Displacer
Displacer Type works on The Principle of Buoyancy
The displacer pushes liquid aside. Its weight is reduced by the
weight of the liquid it displaces.

Hydrostatic Head Level Sensors
 These methods infer level by measuring the

hydrostatic head produced by the liquid column.
 A pressure sensing element is installed at the
bottom of the tank and pressure is converted to
level.
 Different liquid densities or closed tank applications
must be accounted for.

General Theory for Head Measurement
The Pressure exerted by the

Height of the liquid is:
P = H x Density*
Liquid Density (D)
Height (H)
If the Density of the liquid is

Pressure PSI
known then
H = Pressure
Density*
*Note: For liquids other than water, use the density of water 0.0361 lb/in3
as a reference and multiply by the SG of the liquid.

Differential Pressure Level Measurement
Contacting – dP Level
•suitable for liquids only
•uses same dP transmitter as in dP flow measurement

74
Conductivity Probe
 When the liquid makes
contact with any of the
electrodes, an electric
current will flow
between the electrode
and ground
 The current energizes
a relay

Options for Level Measurement
 Non-Contacting – Radar
Level
 suitable for liquids and solids

 foaming, turbulence, vessel
walls and internals can affect
signal if not installed correctly

Electro-mechanical vibratory switch for
level detection

Ultrasonic non-contacting switch
with two switch points for level
detection of bulk solids, liquids
and slurries

Pulse radar level instrument for
liquids and slurries

Temperature Measurement

?What is Temperature
 Temperature is the degree of hotness or

coldness, measured on a definite scale.
 Heat is a form of energy and is measured

in calories or BTU’s
(British Thermal Units)

Heat Transfer
1. Convection:
By moving molecules in gases or liquids
by natural circulation.
2. Conduction:
Conduction is the transfer of heat
through or across a conductor.
3. Radiation:
Transfer of heat by rays the sun heats
the earth’s atmosphere.

Heat Transfer by Convection

Heat Transfer by Conduction

Heat Transfer by Radiation

Temperature Scales

Temperature Units Conversion
 Deg. C = (Deg. F-32) x 5/9
 Deg. F = (Deg. C x 9/5) + 32
 Deg. K =(Deg. C + 273. 15)
 Deg. R =(Deg. F + 459.7 )

Temperature Measuring Instruments
1. Thermocouples
2. RTD, Resistance Temperature Detectors
3. Bimetal Thermometers
4. Filled System Thermometers
5. Glass Stem Thermometers

THERMOCOUPLES
 When two wires with

dissimilar electrical
properties are joined
at both ends, a small Type J 0 to 800 °C
electric current is Type K 0 to 1200°C
Type T -199 to 250°C
produced Type E 0 to 600°C
proportional to the Type R/S 0 to 1600°C
Type B 500 to 1800°C
temperature. Type N 0 to 1200°C
Type L 0 to 800°C

RTD, Resistance Temperature Detectors
 RTD are sensors used to measure

temperature by correlating the resistance of
the RTD element with temperature.
 Common Resistance Materials for RTDs:

 Platinum (most popular and accurate)
 Nickel
 Copper
 Balco (rare)
 Tungsten (rare)

Schematic two-wire RTD circuit

Options for Local or Remote Temperature
Measurement
Thermocouples & RTD

Bimetal Thermometers
 two thin strips of metal, with different coefficients of

expansion, When one end is fixed, the other end will
deflect in nearly direct proportion to the change in
temperature.

Filled System Thermometers
 The system is completely filled
with fluid (liquid or gas)
 With an increase in measured
temperature, the fluid in the bulb
will expand and increase the
pressure in the bulb, capillary,
and bourdon tube.
 The pressure sensing element
responds to the increase in
pressure by moving the pointer
up the scale

Glass Stem Thermometers
 Mercury is used for hot temperatures
and colored alcohol for cold
temperatures
 problems with glass thermometers

 Brittle
 Mercury solidifies at -40°C
 Alcohol boils at around 120 °C
 Accurate ones are expensive

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Basic Instrumentation

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 1

 Process Variables & Primary Sensing

 Instrument Air Systems

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 2

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 3

All Engineers in the plant must understand these

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 4

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 5

A measure of force applied onto a unit area

PRESSURE = FORCE DIVIDED BY AREA

Then, P = 5 pounds per square inch (psi)

mm Wc bar lnch Wc Lbf/in2 or (PSI) UNIT

703.1 0.06895 27.73 1 Lbf/in2 or (PSI)

25.4 2.487x10-3 1 0.03613 lnch Wc

10.22x103 1 402.1 14.504 bar

1 97.98x10-6 0.03937 1.422x10-3 mm Wc

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 7

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 8

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 9

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 10

Local Pressure 1. Manometer

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 Bourdon tube changes in its shape due to

C-Shaped Bourdon Tube principle

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 13

Spiral Boudon Spring Helix Bourdon tube

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 14

 a change in pressure on a diaphragm causes

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difference in the two pressures determines the

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 An increase in pressure causes the bellows

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 When metallic conductors or semiconductors are

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 Change in capacitance resulting from the movement of

Wednesday, December 8, 2021 22

 A certain class of crystals produce an electrical

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Wednesday, December 8, 2021 25

 An electric pressure switch senses pressure and opens

 Pressure switches are set to trip at a certain point with

 When the pressure is returned to within the acceptable

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 Mass flow rate (W) is the mass or weight

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2000 < Re < 4000

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 For turbulent flow, after a sufficient straight

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 The Orifice Plate is the most common

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