AS MODULE 2:

PHYSIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY & INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES

BY
DR GEORGE VARVATSOULIAS

Lesson 1: Stress as a bodily

response
 TERMINOLOGY ON STRESS
 “...a pattern of negative physiological states and
psychological responses occurring in situations where
people perceive threats to their well-being which they
may be unable to meet” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)
 “...a pattern of physiological, behavioural, emotional,
and cognitive responses to real or imagined stimuli that
are perceived as preventing a goal or endangering or
otherwise threatening well-being” (Linsky et al., 1995)
 NEGATIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES
AND PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
STRESS
Negative physiological states and psychological
responses to stress mean also that oneself is protected
against the worse in one’s health

 Negative Physiological States: Increase of Heart Rate

and Blood Pressure, Rise of Blood Sugars, Deeper
Breathing, Increase of Perspiration, Secretion of
Adrenaline, Digestion is Stopping
 Negative Psychological Responses: Fear, Anger,
Hostility, Embarrassment, Depression, Helplessness,
Anxiety
 STRESS AND STRESSORS
People experience stress according  Death of Spouse
to life situations (events) that feel
difficult to cope with. These life
 Divorce
situations (events) are generally  Marital Separation
known as stressors (agents of
considerable tension)  Jail term
Examples of the top 10:  Death of close Family
Member
 Personal Illness or Injury
 Marriage
 Fired at Work
 Marital reconciliation
 Retirement
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 1
(A BRIEF PRESENTATION)
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 2
(IN PICTURE)
 Brain or cranial nerves
 Spinal cord: Conductor
of sensory and motor
nerve impulses
 Cervical spinal nerves:
Nerves around the neck
 Thoracic spinal nerves:
nerves associated to the
upper body
 Lumbar spinal nerves:
Nerves near the back and
the hips
 Sacral spinal nerves:
Nerves around the
genital area; around the
sacred rites of the body
 THE BODY’S RESPONSE TO STRESSORS
1
(PITUITARY AND ADRENAL SYSTEM)

Pituitary gland: Located at the base of the brain; consisting of two

parts: the anterior pituitary (the front part) which releases hormones
via blood vessels; the posterior pituitary (the back part), sending
impulses down to funnel-shaped part (channel-like part) of the
pituitary CRH: Corticotrophic-releasing hormone; ACTH:
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone.
Adrenal System: Situated at the top of kidneys; they receive regulatory
input from the nervous system. Two parts: Adrenal medulla: it is the
central core of the adrenal gland. Adrenal cortex: its work is to
synthesise cortisosteroid (fat-combined small parts for the
development of bodily activities) hormones from cholesterol
THE BODY’S RESPONSE TO STRESSORS 2
(BRAIN AND THE PITUITARY ADRENAL
SYSTEM)
 SELYE (1936, 1976) AND THE GENERAL
ADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS), OR THE
PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYNDROME
“...It suddenly struck me that one could look at [the experiments] from
an entirely different angle. [Perhaps] there was such a thing as a
non-specific reaction of the body to damage of any kind” (Selye,
1976)
The General Adaptation System (GAS): Non-specific responses to
stressors are automatically confronted from one’s body. That kind of
defence on behalf of one’s body returns the body to its previous
original state. Selye (1956) called the non-specific response to a
stressor as General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A back-fire to GAS: If repeated or prolonged exposure to a stressor
cannot be managed by the GAS, individuals can suffer from tissue
damage, increased susceptibility to disease, and in extreme cases
even...death!
INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE CNS
(HYPOTHALAMUS)/MACLEAN (1982) 1
 The Primitive Brain: the
reptilian brain/fear-threat-
anger
 The Intermediate Brain: the
paleo-mammalian
brain/family concerns
agonistic interactions,
emotions
 The Cerebral Cortex/Gray
Matter: the neo-mammalian
brain/high intellectual
activities: science,
civilisation
INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE
CNS (HYPOTHALAMUS) 2
Operating towards:
 Species-typical
Behaviour: behaviours
important for survival
 Homeostasis: the
maintenance of a proper
balance of physiological
variables such as body
temperature and fluid
concentration
INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE
ANS

The ANS controls internal

bodily processes, such as
urination, digestion, the
muscles
Two branches:
Parasympathetic
(restoration and
preservation of energy)
and Sympathetic (engaging
or withdrawing from
activities)
INTERACTION OF THE GAS WITH THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The Endocrine System is
consisted of glands that
secrete hormones
The entire endocrine system
is regulated by
Hypothalamus
The function of
hypothalamus relates to
understanding the bodily
effects of stress on other
endocrine glands
THE THREE STAGES OF THE GENERAL
ADAPTATION SYSTEM
 The Alarm Reaction: the
perception and evaluation of a
stressor, consisted of the shock
phase, and the countershock phase
 The Resistance Stage: Recovering
from the initial shock and coping
with the situation
General Adaptation
 The Exhaustion Stage: Tissues
System show signs of wear-and-tear;
muscles come to a fatique state;
blood sugar levels drop; endocrine
glands and kidneys may be
damaged
 EVALUATION OF SELYE’S APPROACH
 Selye’s GAS explains the physiology of stress. Although
he claims about non-specific patterns of responses there
can be found physiological activity patterns different
from those of other stressors (Taylor, 1990)
 Selye’s research on stress was based in non-human
subjects (rats), and he did not take into account the
psychological factors to understanding stress
 Finally, Selye ignored the psychological effects of
stressors in his patterns of responses to stress
STRESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS
1
(HEART DISEASE AND DISORDERS OF THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM)
 Type A Disorders: Individuals
frequently engaging themselves in
risky behaviours (smoking) or are
psychologically reactive to stress.
Type A individuals are likely to
have coronary proneness to a
cardiac disorder.
 Non-Type A Individuals: Are
those who feel relaxed, easy-
going, are forgiving and not easily
angered. Funnily enough, the
second category is more
susceptible to a heart disease,
because they don’t easily refer
themselves to a doctor
STRESS AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS
2
(ASSOCIATED TO HYPERTENSION –
CHRONICALLY HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE)

 Blood flow is increased when ANS activity is heightened

 Heightened blood flow causes hardening and
deterioration of blood vessel tissues leading to heart
disease, stroke, and kidney failure
 Heart diseases, stroke, and kidney failure relate to urban
life stressors, such as population density, crime rates,
poverty conditions
THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE
IMMUNE SYSTEM
(PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 1
 The Immune System works
towards fighting against
antigens (bacteria, viruses, and
other foreign hazardous
bodies)
 Infectious illnesses relating to
stress, such as influenza,
herpes, etc.
 Decreased endorphins (a
morphine-like substance) may
produce irritability, anxiety,
depression, difficulty in
understanding, etc.
 THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE
IMMUNE SYSTEM
(PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 2

Acute and Chronic Stressors and the Immune System

1. Acute Stressors: Speaking in Public, Working to
Deadlines, etc.
2. Chronic Stressors: Separation, Divorce, Caring for
Others, etc.
 THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE
SYSTEM (PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 3: ACUTE
STRESSORS: THE SYMPATHO-ADRENOMEDULLARY
AXIS
THE EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
(PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY) 4: CHRONIC
STRESSORS: HYPOTHALAMIC-PITUITARY-ADRENAL
AXIS
 SUMMARY
 Stress is defined as a pattern of negative physiological states and
psychological processes
 Selye concluded that non-humans respond in a non-specific
physiological way to stressors; the General Adaptation syndrome
(GAS)
 The GAS interacts with the CNS, the ANS, and the Endocrine
System
 The key stages for GAS: the alarm reaction, the resistance stage,
and the exhaustion stage
 Cardiovascular disorders are influenced by the presence of stress in
one’s life
 The immune system may lose its full potential reactivity if an
individual experiences stress
 QUESTION TO CONSIDER ON THIS
SECTION

 Definitions of stress and stressors. Discuss their pros and

cons
 Describe the general adaptation syndrome and evaluate it

 Discuss the relationship between stress and

cardiovascular disorders
 Describe and evaluate the relationship between stress
and the immune system
 REFERENCES
 Lazarus, R.S, Folkman, S. (19840: Stress, Appraisal, and
Coping. New York: Springer
 Linsky, A. S., Bachman, R., Straus, M. A. (1995): Stress,
Culture, and Aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press
 MacLean, P. D. (1982): On the origin and progressive
evolution of the triune brain. In E. Armstrong & D. Falk
(Eds.) Primate Brain Evolution. New York: Plenum Press
 Selye, H. (1936): A syndrome produced by diverse nocuous
agents. Nature, 138, 32pp
 ________ (1976): The Stress of Life. New York: McGraw-
Hill