LEARNING

LEARNING ::

SACHIN.S.L.
SACHIN.S.L.
4JC10MEM12
4JC10MEM12

FAROOQ
FAROOQAHMED.
AHMED.
4JC10MEM03
4JC10MEM03
 AGENDA
AGENDA

Meaning & Definition

Learning –Explicit & Implicit
Theories of Learning
Principles of Learning
Learning & OB
Conclusion

© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 2–2

LEARNING
LEARNING

LEARNING ?

“it’s what we did when we went to school”

?
Definition
Definition of
of LEARNING
LEARNING

Any relatively permanent

change in behavior that occurs
as a result of experience.
Components
Components of
of Learning
Learning

Learning
Learning
••Involves
Involveschange
change
••Is
Isrelatively
relativelypermanent
permanent
••Is
Isacquired
acquiredthrough
throughexperience
experience
EXPLICIT
EXPLICIT&&IMPLICIT
IMPLICITKNOWLEDGE
KNOWLEDGE

EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE:
 Organized & can be Communicated.
 Can be written down & given to others.
 It is a small portion of total knowledge.
Example: Information that a student receives in classroom.

IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE:
 Its major part/portion of overall knowledge.
 It is merely an idea that one knows.
 Its embedded in our actions & way of thinking.
 Can’t be documented & communicated explicitly.
Example: Skills gained by a Bus Driver.
Theories
Theories of
of Learning
Learning

Classical
Classical Operant
Operant
Conditioning
Conditioning Conditioning
Conditioning

LEARNING
LEARNING

Social Cognitive
Cognitive
Social
Learning Learning
Learning
Learning
Classical
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning ::

A type of conditioning states

that an event, repeated several
times, evokes desired response.

EXPERIMENT: paVLOV’S STUDY.

A Noble prize-winning
psychologist from Russia.
 IVAN PAVLOV’s Experiment on a Dog

Before
BELL
BELL conditioning
No
NoResponse
Response

Unconditioned
Unconditioned Uncond
UncondResponse
Response
Stimulus
Stimulus -MEAT
-MEAT -SALIVATION
-SALIVATION
During conditioning
CConditioned
onditioned Unconditioned
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Stimulus -BELL
-BELL Stimulus
Stimulus -MEAT
-MEAT
Changing stimulus

Uncond
UncondResponse
Response
-SALIVATION
-SALIVATION

CConditioned
onditioned After CCondi
ondiResponse
Response
Stimulus
Stimulus -BELL
-BELL conditioning -SALIVATION
-SALIVATION
 IVAN PAVLOV’s
Experiment on a Dog

Key
KeyConcepts
Concepts
••Unconditioned
Unconditionedstimulus
stimulus
••Unconditioned
Unconditionedresponse
response
Example:
POLICE DEPT. ••Conditioned
Conditionedstimulus
stimulus
••Conditioned
Conditionedresponse
response
OPERANT
OPERANT CONDITIONING
CONDITIONING ::

Its also called Instrumental conditioning.

It refers to the process that our behavior produces
certain consequences and how we behave in future will
depend on what these consequences are.

NOTE:
If our actions – pleasant effects – more likely to repeat in future.
If our actions – unpleasant effects – less likely to repeat in future.
 Operant
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning cont…
cont… ::

BEHAVIOURS
CONSEQUENCES
Works Is paid
Talks to others Meets more people

The Enters restaurant Obtains food

Individual Increases productivity Receives merit pay
Enters library Finds a book
Completes difficult Receives praise and
assignments promotion
Difference
Differencebetween
betweenClassical
Classical&&Operant
OperantConditioning
Conditioning

CLASSICAL OPERANT
1. Responses are elicited 1. Responses are emitted by a
from a person (reactive) person (proactive)
2. Responses are fixed to 2. Responses are variable in
stimulus (no choice) types & degrees (choice)
3. CS is stimulus such as 3. CS is situation such as
object, person. office, specific
4. Reinforcement is not circumstances.
received by choice. 4. Person is instrumental in
securing reinforcement by
operating on the
environment.
 COGNITIVE
COGNITIVEPROCESS
PROCESSOF
OFLEARNING
LEARNING::

Cognitive process assumes that people are

conscious, active participants in how they learn.

Feedback

Prior Behavioral Perceived

Perceived
PriorLearning
Learning Behavioral
Choice
Choice Consequences
Consequences
 Cognitive
CognitiveProcess
ProcessCont…
Cont…

Feedback

Prior Behavioral Perceived

Perceived
PriorLearning
Learning Behavioral
Choice
Choice Consequences
Consequences

1. People draw on their experience and use past learning as

basis for present behavior.
2. People make choices about their behavior.
3. People recognize the consequences of their choices.
4. People evaluate those consequences & add them to prior
learning, which affects future choices.
Social
Social Learning
Learning Theory
Theory ::

It is also called “Observational Learning”,

where it emphasizes the ability of an individual to
learn by observing others.

Sometimes it is popularly known as

“Vicarious Learning”. In this, learner acquires
tacit knowledge and skills by observing what
happens to his model.
Social
Social Learning
Learning Theory
Theory Cont…
Cont… ::

Model
Model Observer
Observer

Behavior
Behavior Pay
Payattention
attentionto
tomodel
model
Remember
Remember
what
whatmodel
modeldid
did

Practice
Practice
model’s
model’sbehavior
behavior
Motivated
Motivatedtoto
imitate
imitatemodel
model??
Imitate
Imitate
model’s
model’sbehavior
behavior
Observational
Observational Learning
Learning Cont…
Cont…

Process involved in Observational Learning :

1. Learner must pay attention to model.

2. Observer must have good retention of model’s
behavior.
3. Observer must practice model’s behavior.
4. Observer must have some motivation to learn from
model.
Principles
Principles of
of learning
learning
Principle of learning are many but he most
important are:
1. Motivation
2. Reinforcement
3. Learning curves
4. Whole vs. part learning
5. Meaningfulness of material
Principles
Principles of
of learning
learning

Principles of learning are highly useful for trainer in

order to import maximum knowledge and skills to
trainees

Motivation

The concept of motivation is the basic because,

without motivation learning does not take place or at
least not effective.

Reinforcement, punishment and extinction

Play a key role in the learning process.

Reinforcement: used to enhance the desirable behavior

Punishment and Extinction: employed to minimize
undesirable behavior
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Positive
Positivereinforcement
reinforcement
Negative
Negativereinforcement
reinforcement

Positive
Positivereinforcement
reinforcement
Strengthens
Strengthensandandenhances
enhancesbehavior
behaviorby
bythe
thepresentation
presentationof
of
positive
positivereinforcers.
reinforcers.

Reinforcers:
Reinforcers:(psychology)
(psychology)aastimulus
stimulusthat
thatstrengthens
strengthensor
orweakens
weakensthe
the
behavior
behaviorthat
thatproduced
producedit.it.
Type
Typeof:
of:input
inputor
orstimulant
stimulant

Positive
Positivereinforcers
reinforcers
Primary
Primaryreinforcers:
reinforcers:satisfaction
satisfactionof
ofbasic
basicneeds
needslike
likefood,
food,water
water
and
andsexual
sexualpleasure.
pleasure.
Secondary
Secondaryreinforcers(conditioned
reinforcers(conditionedrefinforcers):
refinforcers):benefits
benefitslike
like
money,
money, status,
status,grades
gradesetc,
etc,
 Principle
Principle of
of positive
positive reinforcement
reinforcement

1. Principle of contingent reinforcement: The reinforcement must be

administered only if the desired behavior has occurred.

2. Principle of immediate reinforcement: The reinforcer will the most

effective if administered immediately after the desired behavior has
occurred.

3. Principle of reinforcement size: The larger the amount of

reinforcement delivered after the desired behavior, the more the
effective the reniforcer will have on the frequency of the desired
behavior.The amount, or size, of reniforcer is relative

4. Principle of reinforcement deprivation (neediness): The more a

person is deprived of the reniforcer, the greater the effect it will have
on the future occurrence of the desired behavior.
Negative
Negative reinforcement
reinforcement
An unpleasant event that precedes a behavior, is removed
when the desired behavior is occurred.

Negative reinforcers: Stimuli that strengthen responses

that permit an organism to avoid or escape from their
presence.
Example: we see negative reinforcement in organization
and in personal life.

Negative reinforcement strengthens or increases

behavior by the threat of and the use of undesirable
consequences or the termination or withdrawal of an
undesirable consequence.
Both positive and negative reinforcement are
procedures that strengthen or increase behavior.
 Schedules
Schedules of
of reinforcement
reinforcement

Reinforcement should be properly scheduled for

effectiveness.
1. Continuous reinforcement
2. Intermittent reinforcement (partial)

Intermittent reinforcement
1. Fixed interval schedule
2. Variable interval schedule
3. Fixed ratio schedule
4. Variable ratio schedule
Schedules Description Example Effect on Effect on
performance behavior
Fixed Reinforcers Pay cheque at the Average and Fast extinction
interval administered after a end of each month irregular of behavior
constant amount of performance
time has elapsed

Variable Reinforcers Boss passes by the Leads to Slow extinction

interval administered after a employees desks at moderately high of behavior
variable amount of different times on and stable
time has elapsed different days performance

Fixed ratio Reinforcers Piece rating of Leads quickly to Moderately fast

schedule administered after a wages or bonus for very high and extinction of
constant number of every given amount stable behavior
action performed of sales performance

Variable Reinforcers A slot machine Leads to very Very slow

ratio administered after a pays a jackpot on high performance extinction of
schedule variable number of average behavior
actions performed
 Punishment
Punishment

It is an attempt to eliminate or weaken an undesirable behavior.

Two types
1. Apply Negative consequences (punishers)
2. Withhold Positive consequences

Extinction
An alternate to punishing undesirable behavior is extinction.
This Is the weakening of a behavior by ignoring it or making sure it is
not reinforced.

E.g.: if the rewards are withdrawn for behavior that was previously
reinforced, the behavior will become less frequent and die out.
But extinction needs time and patience to be effective
 Negative effects of punishment Recurrence of
Undesirable
Behavior

But
Short term leads
decrease in Long Emotional
the frequency
Punishment of undesirable term Reaction
Undesirable by behavior
behavior supervisor

Aggressive
Behavior

Which leads to reinforcement

Apathetic
Noncreative
Performance

High turnover
And Fear of
Absenteeism supervisor
 Learning
Learning curves
curves
A diagrammatic presentation of the amount learned in the
relation to time elapsed.
plateaux
Amount learned

fatigue

Initial
spurt

Disorganization
Of learning
Organization
of learning End spurt

time
Initial Spurt: Beginning (first step is the best step)

Learning plateau: at some point of the learning process

is flattening off in terms of improvement (maximum
performance is achieved)

Organization of learning: jumping from one plateau to

another (learner discovers a new and more effective
method of performing particular task)

Disorganization of learning: fall off performance

(subject has chosen between alternative method of
tackling a task)
End spurt: last characteristic of learning curve.
Fatigue: failing
Learning styles
Important principle of learning is the learning style
Learning style: ability of an individual to learn
4 styles
Feeling

Accommodation Diverger

Doing Observing

Converger
Assimilator

Thinking
Accommodator: learns by doing and feeling.
hand-on experience, gut feeling rather than
logical analysis.

Diverger: learns by observing and feeling.

the ability to view concrete situations from
different angles. He or she takes time and analyze
many alternatives.

Converger: learns by doing and thinking.

practical use of information.

Assimilator: learns by observing and thinking.

effective at understanding a wide range of
information and putting in to a logical form.
 Whole vs. part learning
Learning a whole job is superior to breaking the job into
parts and learning the parts. Individual is not only required
to learn each individual part but must be able to combine
the separate parts so that whole performance is achieved.

Meaningfulness of material
A definite relation is established between learning and
meaningfulness of the subject learnt. The more meaningful
the material, the better does the learning proceed.
Organizing meaningful units, creating association with
already familiar terms, and providing a conceptual basis of
logical reason for the material are some of the practical
possibilities
 Learning
Learning and
and OB
OB
In addition to the application of learning in OB, there are several other
dimensions which have a bearing on individual behavior in
organization.
Important aspects given below
1. Stimulus generalization in organization
Stimulus generalization refers to how people recognize the same or
similar stimuli in different settings. it is the process by which they
can generalize a contingent reinforcement from one setting to
another
2. Stimulus discrimination in organization
Stimulus discrimination is the ability to recognize differences among
stimuli.

Example: Plant manager of the manufacturing company who has a

history of effective troubleshooting.
Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimuli
(work situation)

Response
(choice of behavior)

Consequence
(reinforcement)

Stimulus
(new work situation)

Is the new stimulus similar enough to the initial one to

except the same behavior-reinforcement relationship?

yes no

Generalization Discrimination
(repeat initial behavior) (choosing the new behavior)
Learning and training
learning is the major objective of training. if
conducted keeping learning principles in mind training
becomes effective.

Learning through feedback

feedback is any information that people receive about
the consequences of their behavior
 CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION

Our knowledge about learning further suggests that

reinforcement is a more effective tool then punishment.
Although punishment eliminates undesired behavior more
quickly than negative reinforcement does, punished behavior
tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather than
permanently changed and punishment may produced
unpleasant side effects, such as lower morale and higher
absenteeism or turnover. In addition, the recipients of
punishment tend to become resentful of the punisher.
Managers, therefore, are advised to use reinforcement rather
than punishment.