A SEMINAR ON

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

MR. RAJEEV CHAUHAN PRIYAM KHANDELWAL
H.O.D. OF EC 0223EC091036
EC “4TH” SEM
OUTLINE

2
1. INTRODUCTION

 Objectives of navigation:
 Know your position
 Efficient use of fuel
 Maintain a flight schedule
 Avoid other air traffic
 Avoid ground-to-air missiles and
anti-aircraft artillery (known sites)
 Minimize exposure to enemy radar

3
1.1 MAIN METHODS OF
NAVIGATION
 Classic dead-reckoning using air data (speed, altitude)
and magnetic (bearing) coupled with LORAN-C.
 Radio navigation
 Inertial navigation
 Satellite navigation
 Combinations of the above (integrated)

4
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION
 Basic navigation parameters:

 Altitude (barometric or radar)

 Speed in the X, Y and Z axes
 Indicated air speed (IAS), Mach number (M), and true air
speed (TAS)
 Heading and track
 Position in latitude and longitude
 Way-points

5
Fig 1.1:- Basic navigation paremeters

6
2. RADIO NAVIGATION
 Use of the classic dead-reckoning method of
navigation, based upon the parameters presented
in the previous diagram, is subject to heading
errors and en route wind affects that lead to
along-track and across-track errors.
 Since the 1930’s, radio beacons and navigation
aids have greatly improved navigation by
providing a fixed set of references points.

7
2.1 RADIO NAVIGATION
 Radio navigation aids include:
 VHF omnirange (VOR)
 Distance-measuring equipment (DME)
 Non-distance beacons (NDB)
 Tactical air navigation (TACAN)
 VORTAC (combined TACAN and VOR)
 Long range navigation (LORAN-C)

8
2.2 VHF OMNIRANGE (VOR)
 Do not be confused by its name, VOR stations provide
bearing information relative to the aircraft position.
 VOR stations operate in the 108-117.95 MHz band with
a channel spacing of 50 kHz or 100kHz.
 Each station transmits its identification via a Morse code
modulated tone.
 A reference 30 Hz signal is FM modulated onto the
carrier.
 A secondary signal is sent by a directed (cardioid)
antenna that spins at 30 rev/sec.

9
2.2.1 VOR BEARING

10
2.2.2 AERONAUTICAL CHART
VOR

11
2.3 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
EQUIPMENT (DME)

 Provides the distance from the station by

measuring the time difference between
the interrogation pulses and the response.
 Often installed near VOR stations so as to
provide combined bearing and distance.
 ~80 VOR/DME stations in Canada.
 0.5 nm

12
2.4 NON-DISTANCE BEACONS (NDB)
 The signal only includes bearing information.
 On board automatic direction finding equipment
is required to get the bearing.
 This same equipment can be used to find distress
locator beacons.
 The most widely spread beacons in use today.
 More than 500 in service in Canada alone.

13
2.5 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION
(TACAN)

 A navigation system used by

military aircraft.
 Operates on UHF channels between
960-1215 MHz.
 More precise than VOR/DME.
 1% azimuth; 0.1nm

14
2.6 COMBINED VOR / TACAN
(VORTAC)
 Provides interoperability between civil and
military aircraft.
 Especially useful for large military aircraft that
frequently fly civil aviation routes.

15
2.7 RADIO NAVIGATION USE

16
2.8 RADIO NAVIGATION LIMITATIONS
 Foroceanic crossings, or other routes where
VOR is not available, Doppler radar is used.
This can provide dead-reckoning position by
measuring the aircraft speed with respect to the
ground.

17
2.8.1 LORAN- C
 A more precise system for oceanic crossings
uses an HF band hyperbolic navigation system
none as long range navigation (LORAN-C).
 In the graph on the next page, the hyperbolic
lines represent points that will have the same
time difference between the arrival of signals
from the two stations.
 Can you deduce how position is determined?

18
2.8.2 HYPERBOLIC LORAN- C

19
3. INERTIAL NAVIGATION (IN)
 An inertial navigation system includes at least a
computer and a platform or module containing
accelerometers and gyroscopes, or other motion-
sensing devices. The INS is initially provided with
its position and velocity from another source (a
human operator, a GPS satellite receiver, etc.), and
thereafter computes its own updated position and
velocity by integrating information received from
the motion sensors. The advantage of an INS is that
it requires no external references in order to
determine its position, orientation, or velocity once
it has been initialized. [Wikipedia3]

20
3.1 INERTIAL NAVIGATION
ADVANTAGE
 Unlike radio navigation, inertial navigation allows for
arbitrary way point navigation.

21
 3.2 IN PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Calculate the
components of
Accelerometers Gyroscopes
acceleration

Acceleration in x, y and z

Initial values  x dt  y dt  z dt
Speed in x, y and z

Initial values  x dt  y dt  z dt
22
Coordinates in x, y and z
3.3 TWO IN PLATFORM
IMPLEMENTATIONS:
1. Gyrostabilised platform
 The accelerometers and gyroscopes are placed on a
platform that itself is stabilized so as to maintain a fixed
position in space.
 Requires fine servo motors and mechanisms to maintain
stabilization
 Very costly
 Not very reliable

23
3.3.1 TWO IN PLATFORM
IMPLEMENTATIONS:

2. Strapdown platform
 The sensors are fixed to the body of the device, and thus
the aircraft.
 The necessary calculations to convert the from the vehicle
axis to the space axis are computed sing a digital
computer.
 Less costly, less maintenance.
 More reliable.

24
3.3.2 TWO IN PLATFORM
IMPLEMENTATIONS:

25
3.4 IN SYSTEM OF AXIS

26
3.5 STAND-ALONE INS

27
4. GLOBAL NAVIGATION
SATELLITE SYSTEMS (GNSS)
 Three systems:
 GLONASS
 Galileo
 GPS

28
4.1 GLONASS
 A system of the former Soviet Union
 First satellite launched in 1982, system of 24 satellites
completed in 1995.
 Currently the system is only about 25% operational.

29
4.2 GALILEO
 A European system of scheduled to enter service around
2013.
 30 satellites planned so as to provide better coverage for
higher (polar) latitudes.
 Independent of GPS (in times of war)

30
4.3 GPS
 American system
 Operational since 1993.
 24 satellites, arranged so that a minimum of 5 are always
visible anywhere on earth.

31
4.3.1 GPS - PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION
 Control segment
 ground-based control stations
 monitoring stations
 antennas (dishes)
 Space segment
 the 24 satellites
 User segment
 ships,
automobiles, airplanes, portable devices,
phones

32
4.3.2 GPS - PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION

33
4.3.3 GPS - PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION
 Basic
ranging and triangulation is used to
compute a receivers position.
 Each satellite transmits a unique identifier code and a
precise time stamp.
 The ground based control / monitoring stations keep
the precise time and positional information of each
satellite up-to-date.
 The receiver can accurately pin-point its position by
knowing the signal time travel from at least 4
satellites.
 Accuracy: 100 m (all users), 16 m (selective availability)

34
4.3.4 GPS IS NOT PERFECT
 Atmospheric affects
 The speed of the signal is affected by ionospheric and
tropospheric conditions.
 Sun spots
 Propagation via multiple paths (multi path) can
cause time discrepancies.
 The internal satellite positional data (ephemeris)
can accumulate error.
 It is possible to jam (locally) GPS signals.

35
4.3.5 DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS)
 Selective availability causes problems for users
requiring reliably accurate information, such as
civil aviation.
 For improved accuracy, differential GPS has
been introduced wherein position corrections are
provided by ground stations.
 Wide-area DGPS – corrections provided by a network
of ground stations.
 Local area DGPS – corrections provided by a single
ground station.

36
4.3.5.1 WIDE-AREA AUGMENTATION
SYSTEM (WAAS)
 Thissystem improves the accuracy of the system
to within 7 m.

37
4.3.5.2 LOCAL-AREA AUGMENTATION
SYSTEM (LAAS)
Compliments WAAS at a local level

 The corrected data is

transmitted in the VHF
band (line of sight).
 Improves the accuracy
to 1 m.

38
5. INTEGRATED NAVIGATION
 By integrating various means of navigation,
better performance can be achieved.

39
5.1 WHICH SYSTEM DO YOU USE?
 The equipment used in an integrated navigation
system depends upon the phase of flight.
 Oceanic en route
 redundant INS + GPS, possibly LORAN-C
 Domestic en route
 NDB, VOR, DME, TACAN
 Terminal
 NDB, VOR, DME, TACAN + GPS
 Approach
 Instrument or microwave landing system (ILS) / (MLS)

40
5.2 THE FLIGHT MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

41
5.2.1 … AND ITS INTERFACE

42
5.2.2 … AND ITS DATA

43
6. INSTRUMENT LANDING
SYSTEM (ILS)
 An approach and landing system that includes:
 A localizer antenna centered on the runway to provide
lateral guidance.
 A glideslope antenna positioned on one side of the
runway to provide vertical guidance.
 A set of marker beacons positioned in front of the
runway to indicate the stage of the landing.

44
6.1 LOCALIZER AND GLIDESLOPE

45
6.2 ILS APPROACH MARKERS

The frequency
increases as
you approach
the runway

46
REFERENCES
1) Moir & Seabridge, “Military Avionics Systems”, American
Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics, 2006. [Sections 2.6 &
2.7]
2) Collinson, “Introduction to Avionics Systems”, Second Edition,
Springer, 2006.
3) Wikipedia, VHF omnidirectional range,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VHF_omnidirectional_range
4) Mark A. Hicks, "Clip art licensed from the Clip Art Gallery on
DiscoverySchool.com"

47
DOUBTS AND QUERIES……..

48
49