Energy flow within terrestrial and

aquatic ecosystems
• Energy available for growth and reproduction (as a
function of food availability):
= GPE - NPE
• Tells us amount of energy flow
– Not rate at which energy flows
• Ecosystem and community development is
regulated by the rate of energy flow as well
– How fast does available energy flow between
trophic levels
 • Second question of energy flow within a system is:
– “how fast does energy transfer occur?”
• Residence time = inverse of energy transfer rate
• RT = biomass / net productivity

RT (yr) = energy stored in biomass (kJ m-2 )

Net productivity (kJ m-2 yr -1)

(g(C) m-2 )
or
(g(C) m-2 yr -1 )

Measure of biomass accumulation within any given trophic level

Wet tropical rainforest:

Produce about 1800 g m-2 yr-1

and
Living average biomass of 42 000 g m-2

42 000 g m-2
= RT = 23 yr
1800 g m-2 yr-1
Temperate scrubland:

Produce about 600 g m-2 yr-1

and
Living average biomass of 6 000 g m-2

6 000 g m-2
= RT = 10 yr
600 g m-2 yr-1
Open ocean:

Produce about 125 g m-2 yr-1

and
Living average biomass of 3 g m-2

3 g m-2
= RT = 0.02 yr
125 g m-2 yr-1
(About 9 days)
Ricklefs (1972)

Peat bogs near Root Springs, Concord MA

Herbivores: assimilate energy at a rate of 0.31 J m-2 s-1

Aquatic plants and algae produce 0.09 J m-2 s-1

So, where is the other 0.22 J m-2 s-1 coming from?

 Ecosystems do not exist
individually
• autochothonous production = energy fixed
within the system
• allochothonous production = energy fixed
outside of the system
• energy can be from input from external
system
 General Trends
• assimilation efficiency increases at higher trophic
levels
• NPE decreases at higher trophic levels
• GPE decreases at higher trophic levels
• Ecological efficiency averages about only 10%
GPE(n) / GPE (n-1) = efficiency of transfer
between specific trophic levels
• Aquatic systems typically support more trophic
levels than terrestrial systems
 Nutrient cycles
• Biogeochemical sources
– Biotic = nutrients released from decomposers
– Abiotic = nutrients released from erosion of
substrate or fixed by primary producers
• Indirect = nutrients stored in soil
• Direct = nutrients absorbed directly from
decomposers
• Indirect = higher nutrient capital
– Amount of stored nutrients within the system
Indirect nutrient cycling

Nutrients can flow from source to source

Atmosphere Length of time at each source dependant
upon source characteristics

Primary
producers

Dead organic
Consumers material

Soil
Direct nutrient cycling

Nutrient uptake increased by presence

Atmosphere of mycorrhizae (fungal producers)

Primary
producers

Dead organic
Consumers material

Soil
 Additional phosphate increased growth at low nutrient levels:
limiting effects of other nutrients

Fungus absent Fungus present

Dry weight of tomato plants (g)

Effects of direct
Nutrient cycling

0.6 1.2 2.4

Level of phosphate fertilizer (mg / plant)
 Nutrient capital
• Time in Residence (TIR) varies from
system to system
– Overall productivity of system
– Direct vs. indirect nutrient cycling
• Tropical rainforest = direct nutrient cycling
(bacteria and mycrorhyzia) = short TIR
• Temperate forests = direct + indirect cycling (fixing
N, P, K from soil) = longer TIR
 Terrestrial vs Aquatic Nutrient Cycles

• terrestrial: decomposition occurs near roots

• aquatic: decompostion occurs in sediment,
away from photic zone

• terrestrial: decomposition occurs aerobically

• aquatic: decomposition occurs anaerobically
• Aquatic systems typically nutrient limited
• Low nutrient capital
• Short residence time
– 0.2 to 2 days in temperate freshwater
– 1 to 10 days in temperate marine
• Most macronutrients recycled by bacteria
• N, as ammonia or urea, typically taken up
directly
 Nutrients can be stored in sediment
for very long periods
• Released by mechanical disturbance
– disturbance by benthic organisms
– wind generated wave action and current
turbidity
– upwelling due to deep currents, structure or
thermal ‘sinks’
Aquatic systems sensitive to external factors

• Natural
– rain
– seasonal death of biotic community
– seasonal storms
• Unnatural
– raw sewage runoff
– agricultural chemicals and fertilizers