Literature

Books
Groundwater in general:
Freeze, R. A., Cherry, J. A.: Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1979.
De Marsily, G.: Quantitative Hydrogeology-Groundwater Hydrology for Engineers.
Academic
Press, Orlando 1986.
Bear, J.: Hydraulics of Groundwater. McGraw-Hill Series in Water Resources and
Environmental Engineering, New York 1979.
Bear, J.: Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media. Dover Publications, New York 1972.
Modelling of groundwater flow:
Anderson, M. P., Woessner, W. W.: Applied Groundwater Modeling - Simulation of Flow
and Advective Transport. Academic Press, San Diego 1992.
Chiang, W.-H., Kinzelbach, W., Rausch, R.: Aquifer Simulation Model for Windows -
Groundwater flow and transport modeling, an integrated program. Gebrüder Borntraeger,
Berlin Stuttgart 1998.
Manual of simulator ASM for Windows.
Chiang, W.-H., Kinzelbach, W.: 3D-Groundwater modeling with PMWIN: a simulation
system
for modeling groundwater flow and pollution. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
New York 2001.
Manual of PMWIN 5.0 for windows.
Strack, O. D. L.: Groundwater Mechanics. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1989.
Focus of analytical solutions for groundwater flow.

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Why modelling?

1. as realization of a conceptual model (tool for understanding)

2. to calculate field data

3. to predict future developments (prognostic purpose)

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

Classification of models

physical/chemical classification
hydraulic modeling: saturated/unsaturated, one-phase/ multiphase (for
example water and oil).
transport modeling (dispersion, advection)
geochemical modelling (PHREEQC, WATEQ, COTRAM etc.)
Combination of the former points

Classification by dimensions
1 D 2-D (horizontal, vertical)
3-D
quasi 3-D

Classification by algorithm
Analytical methods
Finite differences
Finite elements

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Software

Processing modflow
Authors: Wen-Hsing Chiang +Wolfgang Kinzelbach;
interface between MODFLOW; PMPATH, MT3D, PEST and windows in the
beginning of the 90th.
Modflow versions (without changes in modeling groundwater flow):
modflow 83 (Fortran 66)
modflow 88 (Fortran 77)
modflow 96
modflow 2000

MODFLOW :
developed by McDonald und Harbaugh (1988) at U. S. Geological Survey.
.
Why Processing Modflow?
-worldwide use
-pmwin can be downloaded for free

download Processing modflow, Vers. 5.3: www.pmwin.net/

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 More software
Finite Elements
FEFLOW Finite Element codes
SUTRA density driven flow, saturated-unsaturated flow)
GMS
interface for Finite differences and Finite Element codes
Rockflow
Finite Element code developed for hard rock aquifers
(only flow and transport)
Finite Differences:
Visual Modflow

Analytical solutions:
Twodaen
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 So now
hands on

Processing Modflow

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Boundary conditions
Type Name Variable
1st Dirichlet hydraulic head (h)
2nd Neumann flux (q)
3rd Cauchy flux as function of hydraulic gradient

Dirichlet: where measurements of h are available

(lakes, boreholes, rivers, shoreline etc.)

Neumann: where measurements of q are available (wells, recharge etc.)

Cauchy:surface water with bad hydraulic contact to groundwater

for example river with colmated river-bed

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 colmation hriver
hgroundwater
hriverbed

Modflow algorithm for calculation of in/exfiltration:

if hgroundwater>hriver:
q= Leakage *(hriver – hgroundwater)

if hgroundwater<hriver:
q= Leakage *(hriver - hriverbed)

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Example Cauchy boundary

Calculate the 3rd - boundary flux in cell by hand:

Conductivity of colmation layer: 1e-7 m/s

vertical thickness of colmation layer: 0.6 m
river head: 107.4 masl
groundwater head: 105 m asl
river bottom: 106 m asl
cell length: 100 m
cell width: 30 m
length of river in the cell: 180 m
width of river: 25 m
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Some questions
Answer these questions with (i), (ii) or (iii)

1.) Which type of boundary in PMWIN is applied by defining

IBOUND=-1?
Dirichlet (i), Neumann (ii) or Cauchy (iii)?

2.) Which type of boundary is a no-flow boundary?

Dirichlet (i), Neumann (ii) or Cauchy (iii)?

3.) Which is the default boundary condition in PMWIN?

Dirichlet (i), Neumann (ii) or Cauchy (iii)?

4.) Coordinate the following hydrogeological features to its

corresponding boundary condition
Genil river ( ), Playa lake Fuente de Piedra ( ), Canales reservoir ( ),
Mediterranean Sea ( ), springs ( ), Rain ( )

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 First Example with Processing Modflow
Set up a model to simulate groundwater flow in an aquifer for the
following conditions
river
river head: 134 masl
riv. bottom 125 masl
Kf colmation zone: 1e-6 m/s
impermeable paleozoic rocks vert. thickness colm. zone: 0.7 m
width of river: 12 m

unconfined aquifer with a vertical

thickness of 75 m and hydraulic 2 km
Lake (124 masl)
conductivity of 1e-4 m/s;aquifer top 150
masl); recharge: 40 mm/a

Miocene marls (recharge = 80 mm/a); 0.5 km

5 km water divide
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Water budget
Calculate the water budget of your model

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Applications of Cauchy boundary
-General head boundary-

Granites

fixed boundary
h

Problem area
= model area?

L=28 km

Granites hb

30 km

Qb = K*A*I= K*A*(hb-h)/L
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Example General Head boundary
in Processing Modflow
river head =634 m river head =720 m

thickness =10 m T = 0.01 sqm /s

5km
confined, homogeneous and isotropic aquifer

42 km
eastern model boundary
(at 2 km from western river)

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Flow equation (1-dim)
Mass inflow Mass outflow

 qx  dydzdt  qx

qx
x

dx dydzdt

Change of mass = mass outflow – mass inflow

qx
mass  x
dxdydzdt divide by density and time
 h 
K  
V q x  x   2h
 dxdydz  dxdydz  K 2 dxdydz
t x x x

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Introduce specific yield S
dV dV dh
Ss    S dxdydz
dhdxdydz dt dt

Recombination of S in flow equation gives

V h  2h
 S dxdydz  K dxdydz
t t x

In 3 dimensions (with dx=dy=dz=1)

  2h  2h  2h  dh
 Kx  Ky  Kz  S
 x 2 y 2  z 2  dt
 
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Method of Finite Differences

K  2h
x 2
x
K  2h
y 2
y
K  2h
z 2
z
  Ss
h
t
Example: Simplification of the flow equation to 1 dimension,
steady state and homogeneous and isotrope permeabilities
 h  hi  1, j  hi , j hi , j  hi  1, j
   
 2h  x   x  x hi  1, j  2hi , j  hi  1, j
 0 
x 2 x x  x  2

0  hi  1, j  2hi , j  hi  1, j

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Resolve for hi,j at all points simultaneously

0  hi  1, j  2hi , j  hi  1, j

Exercise:

Open iteration_e.xls and see how the Finite

difference method can be implemented in excel

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Geotechnical application
Flow Net and (pmwin manual example 6.5.2 Seepage under a Weir)

An impervious weir is partially embedded in a confined aquifer. The aquifer is

assumed to be homogeneous with a hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer of 0.0005
m/s and a thickness of 9 m. The effective porosity of the aquifer is 0.15. The
boundary conditions are shown in the figure below. Calculate the flow net and the flux
through the aquifer for the cases that (1) the aquifer is isotropic and (2) the aquifer is
anisotropic with an anisotropy factor of 0.2.

70 m
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Partickle Tracking
Simulation of advective transport

Application:
calculation of isochrones (waterworks, contamination zones)
-calculation of capture zone
-calculation of flow-paths
-calculation of velocitiy-fields along pathlines as for geochemical modeling

Proceeding:
1.Calculation of the hydraulic potentials with a groundwater model (steady
state ot transient)
2.Calculation of particle tracking with the known velocity field of the
simulation result
Solution algorithm
-Euler algorithm
-Runge Kutta
-etc.

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Concept of Euler algorithm
calculation of basic vectors in x,y,z directions
evaluating the velocity at the startpoint in the cell
basic equation: Darcy q= K*I; v=q/n=K*I/n

x x
 vx   vx  x  vx  t
t t y
y y
 vy   vy  y  vy  t x
t t startpoint

y-direction
analog in z-direction
Problem: selection of timestep sufficiently small, so that the
endpoint of the particle in a certain timestep remains in the
same cell.
Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 So now
check pathline options in

Processing Modflow

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

Example for application of particle tracking

Calculation of water protection areas

In Germany for many waterworks water protection zones are
defined in which industrial and agricultural activities are more
restricted. Three types of protection areas have to be
calculated:

Zone I: immediate surroundings of the well (10 m)

Zone 2: 50 d-isochrone
Zone 3 capture zone or 30 a-isochrone

Calculate zone II and III for the following hydrogeologic

conditions by particle tracking: steady state conditions

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

Example particle tracking
Aquifer Data:
homogeneous unconfined aquifer (K = 2*10E-04 m/s)
aquifer thickness: 30 m, aquifer top 30 m, bottom 0 m, porosity: 0,2
length and width of model: 3 km
boundaries in the east and west: river with good hydraulic connection to the
aquifer,
river-heads: east=22 m, west=28 m, distance between rivers 3 km

Tasks
Model this situation and write out the total balance of all fluxes
-Calculate the travel time through the model by hand with the Darcy-equation
-Prove your results by starting particles along the west boundary
-Complete your model by a water work with 3 evenly distributed wells at 700
meters from the eastern boundary. Qtotal: 6000 m3/d.
-Calculate capture zone of wells
-Calculate isochrones: 10a, 50 a

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Check the width of your capture zones
with analytical formula

Qwell
Ywidth 
2 M  k f i

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Transient groundwater flow
transient conditions

K x
 2h
x 2
 2h
 Ky y 2  Kz z 2  2h
  Ss
h
t
steady state conditions

K x
 2h
x 2
 2h
 Ky y 2  Kz z 2  0  2h

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
 Examples of transient conditions

almost everything is transient !!

-wells
-recharge
-surface water levels
-springs

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Storage coefficient

S   
water L   3

1m
mm 2

unconfined aquifer: S = eff. porosity

confined aquifer: S < 1e-3

1m

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Storage coefficient in Processing Modflow

specific yield [-]: storage coefficient for unconfined aquifers

(equals porosity)

specific storage [1/L]: storage coefficient for confined

aquifers normalised to 1 m thickness

storage coefficient [-]: storage coefficient for confined

aquifers = specific storage x layer thickness

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Aquifer types in Processing modflow
Type 2
A layer of this type is partially convertible between confined and unconfined.
Confined storage coefficient (specific storage × layer thickness) is used to
calculated the rate of change in storage, if the layer is fully saturated,
otherwise specific yield will be used. Transmissivity of each cell is
constant throughout the simulation. Vertical leakage from above is limited if
the layer desaturates.

Type 3
A layer of this type is fully convertible between confined and unconfined.
Confined storage coefficient (specific storage × layer thickness) is used to
calculate the rate of change in storage, if the layer is fully saturated,
otherwise specific yield will be used. During a flow simulation,
transmissivity of each cell varies with the saturated thickness of the
aquifer. Vertical leakage from above is limited if the layer desaturates.

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Example Transient modelling
-Simulation of a planned open cast mining site-
Data:
aquifer length and width = 6 km, aquifer top 650 masl, aquifer bottom 500
masl, Kf =4.e-04, storage coefficient =0.25; northern and southern
boundaries are no flow boundaries, western and eastern boundaries are
rivers with river heads of 620 and 650 masl respectively. In the final mining
phase, the hydraulic head within the mining site (extension=700 x 700 m)
must be drawn down at the level of h = 21 m. Afterwards, the mining site will
be filled with water to form an artificial lake.

Your task is to
1. construct a steady-state flow model and calculate the necessary
abstraction rate (= inflow into the mining site) for holding the head at
550 m, and
2. use the calculated steady-state head as the initial hydraulic head and
calculate the temporal development in the artificial lake for the case that
the abstraction within the mining site is turned off.

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Calibration
Function and aim of model calibration
Comparing and adjusting calculated and measured values by changing
flow parameters (for example adjusting measured and calculated hydraulic heads
by adapting kf-values of the aquifer)
information about reliability of the model
Types of calibration
steady state
transient
manual
automatic (Pest, Ucode)
calibration parameters
in general the most unknown parameters;
normally permeabilities and leakage is not known very well; often better
information of recharge exists
fitted parameters
hydraulic heads
flow directons
flow velocities
water budget

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 -isoline
P1

P2

: sum of differences between calculated and measured

values (has to be minimized)

P1,P2: Calibration parameters

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl
PEST termination criteria:

•relative change of  in defined number of

iterations
•change of parameter value is too small
•more than a defined number of iterations
without optimation have been done
•more than a defined number of iterations
have been executed

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Question

Do you believe in a model with perfectly fitted hydroisolines?

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl

 Calibration example
-Estimation of pumping rates for remediation measures-

Hydrogeological data:
Dimension of contaminated site = 65 x 65 m, K=3e-04 m/s, specific yield = 0.2,
groundwater flow is from west to east with a gradient of 0.005.
see pmwin manual chap. 6.4.2

Course Hydraulic Modelling; Granada 2006 by C. Kohfahl