m Sequence of events that results in gas exchange.

m In terrestrial vertebrates it includes 3 steps:

1. Ventilation: Inspiration and
expiration.
2. External respiration: Gas exchange
between air (in lungs) and blood.
Blood then transport Oxygen to the
body tissue cells.
3. Internal respiration: Gas exchange
between blood and tissue fluid.
Blood then transports carbon
dioxide to the lungs.
Gas exhange surface
must be: Alveoli filled with air (gas) External
‡Moist respiration
Carbon dioxide oxygen
‡Thin
‡Large in relation of
size of body
Blood ± part of
circulatory system
contain red pigment ±
¢
 Diffusion of hemoglobin, to
gasses (oxygen and transport gasses
carbon dioxide

Internal
respination
oxygen Carbon dioxide
Body cells surrounded by tissue fluid
m Is the process whereby an organism uses oxygen
and food to produce energy (ATP) and 2 by
products e.g. water and carbon dioxide

m Glucose + O2 ATP + H2O + CO2

Therefore gaseous exchange is necessary for to get

oxygen for cellular respiration.
m Consists of:
1. Nose
2. Air passages:
G Pharynx
G Trachea
G Bronchus
G Bronchioles
3. Lungs ± Alveoli
m Nose has a nasal cavity that
leads to the pharynx.
m Nasal cavity is lined with cilia
and hairs and goblet cells that
make mucus (anti-septic and
moisten air)± filter the air ±
dust, pollen and other foreign
material sticks to it.
m 3 x turbinate bones divide the
nasal cavity into 4 passages ±
This enlarges the surface of
the nasal cavity ± For warming,
cleaning and moisten of air.
m Several surface blood vessels
help to warm air.
m Pharynx ± pass air form
nose to trachea via
larynx.
m Trachea: long, straight
tube kept open by C-
shaped cartilage rings.
m Trachea ± lined with
cilia and goblet cells
(mucus production) ±
traps foreign particles
CILIA (SEM) TRACHEAL LINING
m Trachea divides in a
right and left bronchus
± consist of C-shaped
cartilage rings and
lined with goblet cells Right bronchus-short
(mucus) Branch in 3 Left bronchus ± long,
m Bronchi branch in lung branch in 2
to form bronchioles ±
branch further and
cartilage rings
disappears ± lead air to
air sacs of lung.
Bronchiole
m Right lung (3 lobes -
shorter) and left lung (2
lobes ± longer, narrow)
m Spongy, elastic pink organ.
m Consists of several air sacs
called alveoli.
m Alveoli are grouped
together and form the
endings of the bronchioles.
m Lined with single layer
squamous epithelial cells ±
Thin easy diffusion of gas.
m Alveoli is surrounded by a
network of blood capillaries ±
gasses diffuse into and out of
blood.
m Alveoli is lined with moist layer
± oxygen dissolves in
moisture and diffuses through
alveoli wall into blood
capillary.
 Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery
(Oxygenated
(Deoxygenated
blood)
blood)

Turbinate bones

Pharynx
Alveoli

Trachea

Bronchus

Bronchiole

Diaphragm
SEM TEM
 m INSPIRATION m EXPIRATION

Air inhaled
Air exhaled
Rib cage
expands as Rib cage
rib muscles gets smaller
contract as rib
muscles
relax

When pressure in
lungs increase ± air
When pressure in is pushed out
INSPIRATION
Diaphragm EXPIRATION
Diaphragm
lungs decrease ±
contracts relaxes
air rush in
(moves down) (moves up)
m Air moves in and out of the body via the same
route.
m All terrestrial vertebrates do this except for birds.
m The lungs are not completely emptied during each
breathing cycle.
m The air entering mixes with used air remaining in
the lungs.
m This help to conserve water, but decreases gas-
exchange efficiency
à A 
  can be used to determine how much
air enters the lungs.
à Ñour lungs has a volume of +/- ÿ
  .
à During a normal breath, only  ÿ
   of air is
exchanged ± This air is known as 



à During forced breathing, as much as  ÿ
   of air
can be exchanged, this is known as  
 
(The fitter you are, the higher your vital capacity.)
à +/- 2 ÿ
   of air always remains in the lungs ± this
air is known as 




m Normal breathing rate for adults: 2  
ventilations per minute.
m Respiratory Center in the =

 

  of
the brain controls breathing.
m The respiratory center send impulses through the
    to the diaphragm and through the
  
 
  to the intercostal muscles to
either contract or relax. (Contract during
inspiration and relax during expiration)
 Brain

Respiratory center
automatically regulates
breathing

Intercostal nerves
stimulate the
intercostal muscles
Intercostal muscles

Pheric nerve stimulates the

diaphragm

Diaphragm
m Gas exchange between air m Gas exchange between
in lungs and blood blood and tissue fluid
m Movement driven by m Movement driven by



   . ( [] to 


   . ( []
[]) to [])
m Gasses exerts pressure,
m Gasses exerts pressure, the
the amount of pressure
amount of pressure each each gas exerts is called
gas exerts is called ±  
±  
   (PO2
   (PO2 and PCO2) and PCO2)

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION INTERNAL RESPIRATION

m If PO2 differs across a membrane ± oxygen will
diffuse from a high to a low pressure.
m If PCO2 differs across a membrane ± carbon
dioxide will diffuse from a high to a low pressure.
m During inspiration the alveoli fills with air ± higher
PO2 and lower PCO2 than blood.
m Oxygen diffuse from alveoli into blood and carbon
dioxide diffuse from blood into alveoli.
m When blood reaches the tissue, cellular respiration
in cells causes the tissue fluid to have a lower PO2
and a higher PCO2 than the blood.
m Thus oxygen diffuse from a high pressure in the
blood to a low pressure in the tissue fluid and
eventually in the tissue cells.
m Carbon dioxide diffuse from a high pressure in the
tissue fluid to a low pressure in the blood.
m Most oxygen is transported by hemoglobin (red
pigment protein in erythrocytes).
m Oxygen combines with hemoglobin to form
oxyhemoglobin.
Hb + O2 = HbO2
Hemoglobin Oxygen Oxyhemoglobin
m A small amount of oxygen is transported in
solution in the blood plasma.
m Consist of 4 polypeptide
chains (protein ± 2 alpha
and 2 beta).
m Each chain is associated
with a heme group.
m Each heme group
contains an iron atom.
m Iron binds with oxygen.

Each red blood cell carries 250 million

Hb molecules = 1 Billion Oxygen
molecules
m =
 CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-)
Ä
FIRST CO2 binds with water to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3)


Ä   Ä 

Then carbonic acid dissosiates to form hydrogen

and bicarbonate ions.

Ä   Ä

Ä 
m A 


 of carbon dioxide is transported
by the Hemoglobin molecules in the form of
 



 HbCO2).
CO2 + Hb = HbCO2
m The higher the amount of hydrogen ions in the
blood the lower the pH. Therefor hydrogen ions
bond with the globin part of Hb to keep the pH
normal in the blood.
m The following lower respiratory tract disorders are
caused by exposure to infectious pathogens and /
or polluted air, including tobacco smoke.
  ¢

  ¢

  

  ¢

    


   
  
  
   
m Alveoli fill with pus and
fluid making gas
exchange difficult
X-ray of a patient
with pneumonia

Bacteria streptococcus can

cause pneumonia
m Fibrous connective tissue
builds up in lungs,
reducing their elasticity
and Oxygen diffusion.
m Caused by a bacillus
bacterium
m Alveoli burst and fuse
into enlarged air spaces.
± Surface area for gas
exchange is reduced.
m Airways are inflamed due
to infection (acute) or due
to an irritant (Chronic).
Coughing brings up
mucus and pus.
m Airways are inflamed due
to irritation and
bronchioles constrict due
to muscle spasms
m Smoking causes almost 90% of all lung cancers
and is also a major cause of emphysema.

Healthy normal Lung of a smoker

lung of a non-
smoker
Lung with large
tumors causing lung
cancer