Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(EC 2252)
Prof.J.B.Bhattacharjee
K.Senthil Kumar
ECE Department
1
Review of Spectral characteristics
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals: A signal is said to be
periodic, if it exhibits periodicity. i.e.,
x(t +T)=x(t) , for all values of t.
Periodic signal has the property that it is unchanged
by a time shift of T. A signal that does not satisfy the
above periodicity property is called a non-periodic
signal.
Periodic signals can be represented using the Fourier
Series. Non-periodic signals can be represented
using the Fourier Transform.
Both Fourier series and Fourier Transform deal with
the representation of the signals as a combination of
sine and cosine waves.
Fourier Series
Fourier series: a complicated waveform analyzed
into a number of harmonically related sine and
cosine functions
∞
H(f ) =∫−∞h(t )e −2πift dt
∞
h(t ) =∫ H ( f )e 2πift df
−∞
Non-periodic signals represented by Fourier transform have Continuous spectra.
Fourier Transform Pairs
Note: Π stands for rectangular function. Λ stands for triangular function.
Introduction to Communication
Systems
Communication – Basic process of
exchanging information from one location
(source) to destination (receiving end).
Refers – process of sending, receiving
and processing of information/signal/input
from one point to another point.
Flow of information
Source Destination
10
Objectives
Communication System – to produce an
accurate replica of the transmitted
information that is to transfer information
between two or more points (destinations)
through a communication channel, with
minimum error.
11
NEED FOR COMMUNICATION
Interaction purposes – enables people to
interact in a timely fashion on a global level in
social, political, economic and scientific areas,
through telephones, electronic-mail and video
conference.
13
Output Transducer – placed at the receiver which
converts the electrical signal into the original
message.
Example – Loudspeaker which converts electrical
energy into sound energy.
Electrical Output
Message
Signal Transducer
Signal – electrical voltage or current which varies
with time and is used to carry message or information
from one point to another.
14
Elements of a Communication
System
The basic elements are : Source,
Transmitter, Channel, Receiver and
Destination.
Channel
Information
Transmitter Transmission Receiver Destination
Source
Medium
Noise
15
Function of each Element.
Information Source – the communication system
exists to send messages. Messages come from
voice, data, video and other types of information.
16
Block Diagram of a Transmitter
Transmitting
Antenna
Modulating Audio RF
Modulator
Signal Amplifier Amplifier
Carrier
Signal
5 minutes exercise;
Describe the sequence of events that happen at
the radio waves station during news broadcast?
17
Channel/Medium – is the link or path over
which information flows from the source to
destination. Many links combined will
establish a communication networks.
There are 5 criteria of a transmission
system; Capacity, Performance, Distance,
Security and Cost which includes the
installation, operation and maintenance.
2 main categories of channel that
commonly used are; line (guided media)
and free space (unguided media)
18
Receiver – Receives the electrical signals or
electromagnetic waves that are sent by the
transmitter through the channel. It is also
separate the information from the received
signal and sent the information to the
destination.
19
Block Diagram of a Receiver
Receiving Antenna
RF
Amplifier
Intermediate
Audio
Mixer Frequency Demodulator Destination
Amplifier
Amplifier
Local
Oscillator
Wire
21
Baseband signal is not suitable for
long distance communication….
Hardware limitations
Requires very long antenna
Baseband signal is an audio signal of low frequency.
For example voice, range of frequency is 0.3 kHz to
3.4 kHz. The length of the antenna required to
transmit any signal at least 1/10 of its wavelength (λ).
Therefore, L = 100km (impossible!)
Interference with other waves
Simultaneous transmission of audio signals will cause
interference with each other. This is due to audio
signals having the same frequency range and
receiver stations cannot distinguish the signals.
22
Modulation
Modulation – defined as the process of modifying a
carrier wave (radio wave) systematically by the
modulating signal.
This process makes the signal suitable for transmission
and compatible with the channel.
Resultant signal – modulated signal
2 types of modulation; Analog Modulation and Digital
Modulation.
Analogue Modulation – to transfer an analogue low pass
signal over an analogue bandpass channel.
Digital Modulation – to transfer a digital bit stream the
carrier is a periodic train and one of the pulse parameter
(amplitude, width or position) changes according to the
audio signal.
23
Purpose of Modulation Process in
Communication Systems
To generate modulated signal that is suitable for
transmission and compatible with the channel.
To allow efficient transmission – increase transmission
speed and distance, eg;
1. By using high frequency carrier signal, the information
(voice) can travel and propagate through the air at
greater distances and shorter transmission time
2. Also, high frequency signal is less prone to noise and
interference. Certain types of modulation have the useful
property of suppressing both noise and interference
3. For example, FM use limiter to reduce noise and keep
the signal’s amplitude constant. PCM systems use
repeaters to generate the signal along the transmission
path.
24
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Objectives:-
Recognize AM signal in the time domain, frequency
domain and trigonometric equation form
Calculate the percentage of modulation index
Calculate the upper sidebands, lower sidebands and
bandwidth of an AM signal by given the carrier and
modulating signal frequencies
Calculate the power related in AM signal
Define the terms of DSBSC, SSB and VSB
Understand the modulator and demodulator operations
25
Introduction
Modulation
The alteration of the amplitude, phase or frequency of an oscillator in
accordance with another signal.
Input signal is encoded in a format suitable for transmission
A low frequency information signal is encoded over a higher frequency signal
Carrier Signal
Sinusoidal wave,
Modulating Signal/Base band
Information signal,
v c = Vc sin 2πfc t
Modulated Wave
Higher frequency signal which is being modulated
Modulation Schemes v m = Vm sin 2πfm t
To counter the effects of multi path fading and time-delay spread
26
Modulation Schemes
Carrier Signal,
Vc
Modulating Signal,
Vm
Modulated
Signal
VAM
VPM
VFM
27
Amplitude Modulation
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
28
AM Modulator
Carrier Signal
v c = Vc sin 2πfc t
29
Amplitude Modulation
Vc
- Vc
Vm
- Vm
Vam
- Vam
30
Modulation Index
Modulation Index, m
Indicates the amount that the carrier signal is modulated.
It is an expression of the amount of power in the sidebands.
Modulation level ranges = 0-1 where
• 0 = no modulation
• 1 = full modulation
• >1 = distortion
Vm V max − V min
m= m=
Vc V max + V min
31
Modulation Index
Vm
m=
Vc
32
Modulation Index
Vmax
V max − V min
m=
V max + V min
33
Modulation Index
m=0 m = 0.5
m=1
34
Bandwidth VC
mVc mVc
2 2
fc-fm fc fc+fm
35
Power Distributions
fc-fm fc fc+fm
m2
If R= 1, PT = PC 1 +
2
36
Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSBSC)
Video Audio
Carrier Carrier
f (MHz)
0 1.25 5.75 6.25 6.75 7.0
40
Modulator Circuits
B
Carrier
R1
A C D
Modulating
Diode Output
Signal R2
E
R3 C L
41
Modulator Circuits
A. Modulating Signal
B. Carrier
D. Diode current
E. AM output across
tuned circuit
42
Demodulator
A B C
D iode
C’
AM R1 C1 R’
Signal
43
Demodulator
A. AM signal
B. Current pulses
through diode
C. Demodulating signal
D. Modulating signal
44
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Objectives:-
Recognize FM signal in the time domain, frequency
domain and trigonometric equation form
Calculate the percentage of modulation index
Calculate the upper sidebands, lower sidebands and
bandwidth of an FM signal by Carsons’s Rule and
Bessel Function Table
Calculate the power related in FM signal
Understand the modulator and demodulator of FM
45
Introduction
FM is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave in
proportion to a modulating signal.
The amplitude of the carrier is kept constant while its
frequency is varied by the amplitude of the modulating signal.
In all types of modulation, the carrier wave is varied by the
AMPLITUDE of the modulating signal.
FM signal does not have an envelope, therefore the FM
receiver does not have to respond to amplitude variations it
can ignore noise to some extent.
46
Frequency Modulation
47
Frequency Modulation
The importance features about FM waveforms
are:
The frequency varies
The rate of change of carrier frequency changes is
the same as the frequency of the information signal
The amount of carrier frequency changes is
proportional to the amplitude of the information
signal
The amplitude is constant
48
Frequency Modulation
Carrier Signal
Sinusoidal wave
v c = Vc sin 2πfc t
v m = Vm sin 2πfm t
Modulated Wave
Higher frequency signal which is being modulated
49
Frequency Modulation
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
50
FM Modulator
51
FM Modulator
Carrier Signal
v c = Vc sin 2πfc t
52
Frequency
Carrier Frequency
As in FM system, carrier frequency in FM systems must be higher than the
information signal frequency.
Maximum Frequency
Carrier Swing
fmin = fc − ∆f
fcs =2 ∆f
53
Modulation Index
Modulation Index, m @ β
Indicates the amount that the carrier signal is modulated.
It is an expression of the amount of power in the sidebands.
Modulation level ranges = 0 –
Where
• Δf = fd = frequency deviation
• fm = modulating frequency
∞
• Vm = amplitude of modulating signal
∆f kVm
m= ∆f =
fm 2π
54
Modulation Index
β = 1
β = 5
55
Modulation Index
β = 25
56
Modulation Index
57
Bandwidth
BW = 2nfm
n = number of pairs of the significant sidebands
fm = the frequency the modulating signal
58
Bandwidth
Using Carson’s Rule, to estimate the
bandwidth for an FM signal transmission.
BW = 2( ∆f + f m (max)
)
59
Power Distributions
FM transmitted power, PFM
2 2
Vrms PC
PFM = =
R 2R
where
V
Vrms =
2
60
Narrowband FM and Wideband FM
Narrowband FM has only a single pair of significant
sidebands. The value of modulation index β <1.
CARRIER
MODULATING -90 PHASE
WAVE
WAVE SHIFTER
The modulator splits the carrier into two paths. One path is
direct. The other path contains a -90 degree phase shift unit
and a product modulator. The difference between the signals in
the two paths produces the NBFM signal.
Frequency Modulators
A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.
64
The Operation of the Varactor Modulator
The info signal is applied to the base of the input transistor and
appears amplified and inverted at the collector.
This low freq signal passes through the RF choke (L1) and is
applied across the varactor diode.
Varactor diode behaves as voltage controlled capacitor.
When low reverse biased voltage is applied, more capacitance
is generated and thus decrease the frequency.
When high reverse biased voltage is applied, less
capacitance is generated and thus increase the
frequency.
The varactor diode changes its capacitance in
sympathy with the info signal and therefore
changes the total value of the capacitance in the
tuned circuit.
The changing value of capacitance causes the
oscillator freq to increase and decrease under the
control of the information signal.
The output is therefore an FM signal.
Armstrong of indrect FM generation
71
Review of Probability
Sample Space : the space of all possible outcomes (δ)
Event : a collection of outcomes : subset of δ
Probability : a “measure” assigned to the events of a
sample space with the following properties :
1. for all event A in S
2.
P(A) ≥ 0
3. If PA( Sand
) = 1B are mutually exclusive,
Theorem: P( A B) = P( A) + P( B)
The Conditional
P (probability
A B ) = Pof
( Aan
) +event
P ( B )A−given theB )
P( A
occurrence of event B is
P( A ∩ B)
P( A | B) =
P( B)
Two events A and B are independent if
P ( A B ) = P ( A) ⋅ P ( B )
Random Variables
A rule which assigns a numerical value to
each possible outcomes of a chance
experiment.
If the experiment is flipping a coin. Then a
random variable X can be defined as :
S1 H X(S1)=1
S2 T X(S2)=-1
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
FX (x ) ≜ Prob { X ≤ x}
Properties of CDF :
1. 0 ≤ FX ( x ) ≤ 1, FX (∞ ) = 1, FX ( −∞ ) = 0
2. F ( x) is continuous from right, i.e. lim
X FX ( x ) = FX ( x0 ).
x →x0 +
3. F X ( x ) is a nondecreasing function of x.
P, ( x < X ≤ x ) = F ( x ) − F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x )df
x2
1 2 X 2 X 1 x1 X
Random Processes: A random process is
a mapping from the sample space to an
ensemble of time functions.
X1(t) Sample function
Property 2
If a Gaussian process X(t) is passed through a LTI
system, the output of the system is also a
Gaussian process. The effect of the system on X(t)
is simply reflected by the change in mean(m) and
covariance(C) of X(t).
Noise Theory
Shot noise: It results from the shot effect in the
amplifying devices and active device. It is
caused by random variation in the arrival of
electrons (or holes) at the output of the devices.
N0
2
f
Rw(τ )
N0
2
δ(τ
)
τ
Narrow band noise (Ideal case)
w(t) n(t)
BPF
filtered noise is narrow-band noise
n(t) = nI(t)cos(2π fCt) - nQ(t)sin(2π fCt)
• where nI(t) is inphase, nQ(t) is quadrature component
∴ filtered signal x(t)
x(t) = s(t) + n(t)
- Average Noise Power = N0BT
81
Noise Figure
Consider a signal source. The signal to noise ratio
(SNR) available from the source is given by:
P = GkTδ
The noise no f as :
factor F is defined
Introduction
- Receiver Noise (Channel Noise) :
additive, White, and Gaussian
Receiver Model
1. RX Model
Sw(f)
N0
N0 = KTe where K = Boltzmann’s constant
2
Te = equivalent noise Temp.
f Average noise power per unit bandwidth
Rw(τ )
N0
δ(τ)
2
τ
88
SNR
The signal x(t) available for demodulation is defined by
x (t ) = s (t ) + n(t )
The output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)O is defined as the ratio of
the average power of the demodulated message signal to the
average power of the noise, both measured at the receiver output.
The channel signal-to-noise ratio, (SNR)C is defined as the ratio of
the average power of the modulated signal to the average power of
the channel noise in the message bandwidth, both measure at the
receiver input.
For the purpose of comparing different CW modulation systems,
we normalize the receiver performance by dividing (SNR)O by
(SNR)C. This ratio is called figure of merit for the receiver and is
defined as
( SNR ) O
Figure of merit =
( SNR ) C
Noise in DSB-SC Receivers
DSB-SC
signal s(t) x(t) Product v(t) y(t)
+ BPF
modulator
LPF
Noise
cos(wct)
w(t)
Local Coherent
Oscillator detector
90
With a noise PSD of N0/2 the average noise power in the
message bandwidth W equals WN0 (baseband scenario).
Ac2 Pm
(SNR) C =
2WN 0
x(t ) = s (t ) + n(t )
= Ac cos ( 2πf c t ) m(t ) + nI (t ) cos ( 2πf c t ) − nQ (t ) sin ( 2πf c t )
v(t ) = x (t ) cos ( 2πf c t )
Ac 1 1 1
= m(t ) + nI (t ) + [ Ac m(t ) + nI (t )] cos ( 4πf c t ) − nQ (t ) sin ( 4πf c t )
2 2 2 2
1 1
Output of the LPF is y (t ) = Ac m(t ) + nI (t )
2 2
S N ( f − f c ) + S N ( f + f c ), −W ≤ f ≤ W
S N I ( f ) = S NQ ( f ) =
The average noise 0, power at the receiver output is
elsewhere
2
Hence
have, 1
1we 2WN = WN
0 0
2 2
AC2 (1 + k a2 Pm ) / 2
Hence, the channel signal to noise ratio for AM is
( SNR ) C , AM =
[
AC2 1 + k a2 Pm ]
2WN 0
Finding an expression for (SNR)O, we have
x(t ) = s (t ) + n(t )
x(t ) = [ AC + AC k a m(t ) + nI (t )] cos( 2πf c t ) − nQ (t ) sin( 2πf c t )
y (t ) = envelope of x(t )
y (t ) ≈ AC k a m(t ) + nI (t )
AC2 k a2 Pm
( SNR ) O , AM =
2WN 0
( SNR ) O k a2 Pm
Figure of Merit =
( SNR ) C AM
1 + k a2 Pm
Threshold Effect
When carrier-to-noise ratio is small as compared
to unity the noise term dominates the
performance of the envelope detector and is
completely different. Representing the
narrowband noise n(t) in terms of its envelope and
phase, we have n(t ) = r (t ) cos[ 2πf ct + Ψ (t )]
The phasor diagram for x(t) = s(t) + n(t) becomes
nt y (t)
ul ta
Res
Ψ (t )
r(t)
AC [1 + k a m(t )] cos[ Ψ (t )]
The noise envelope is used as a reference here due to its
dominance. Here it is assumed that Ac is small as
compared to r(t). If we neglect the quadrature component
of the signal with respect to the noise we have
y (t ) ≈ r (t ) + AC cos[ Ψ (t )] + AC k a m(t ) cos[ Ψ (t )]
1
H de (f ) = , -W ≤f ≤W
H pe (f )
P.S.D of noise nd (t) at the discrimina tor output
N0 f 2 BT
f ≤
SNd (f) = A C2 2
0 otherwise
98
Information theory
What is information theory ?
Information theory is needed to enable the
communication system to carry information
(signals) from sender to receiver over a
communication channel
• it deals with mathematical modelling and analysis of a
communication system
• its major task is to answer to the questions of signal
compression and data transfer rate.
Those answers can be found and solved by
entropy and channel capacity
Information is a measure of uncertainty. The less
is the probability of occurrence of a certain
message, the higher is the information.