ME 311: Fluid Mechanics Differential Analysis

Course Outline
Navier-Stokes equations for Laminar Flow Characterization of Laminar and Turbulent Flow Reynold Stresses Boundary layer theory Flow over flat plate and in pipes Lift and Drag Forces Applying energy, momentum and continuity equations of Thermofluids to turbo-machinery, Performance of Turbo-Machines.
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Recommended Text Books

1 2 3. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Mechanics of Fluids Fluid Mechanics Munson, Young & Okiishi B. S. Massey Victor L. Streeter and E. Benjamin Wylie Merle C. Potter; David C. Wiggert Robert W. Fox ; Alan T. McDonald
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4. 5

Mechanics of Fluids Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

General Classroom Rules

Mutual respect (golden rule)  Punctuality Minimal disturbance to fellow students and teacher Turn off your cell phone No chewing /tobacco Questions are encouraged  No question is stupid  Your question is valuable to others in learning

My Preference Learning happens both inside and outside the classroom Inside classroom: interactive, participation Outside classroom: Any time Welcome feedback anytime during the quarter (class format/materials/pace) you are welcome to come to see me / call me any time any where.
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Outline
Introduction Kinematics Review Conservation of Mass Stream Function Linear Momentum Inviscid Flow Viscous Flows Navier-Stokes Equations Exact Solutions Intro. to Computational Fluid Dynamics Examples
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Differential Analysis: Introduction Some problems require more detailed analysis. We apply the analysis to an infinitesimal control volume or at a point. The governing equations are differential equations and provide detailed analysis. Around only 80 exact solutions to the governing differential equations. We look to simplifying assumptions to solve the equations. Numerical methods provide another avenue for solution (Computational Fluid Dynamics)

Kinematic Velocity Field

Continuum Hypothesis: the flow is made of tightly packed fluid particles that interact with each other. Each particle consists of numerous molecules, and we can describe velocity, acceleration, pressure, and density of these particles at a given time.

Kinematic Acceleration Field

Lagrangian Frame: Eulerian Frame: we describe the acceleration in terms of position and time without following an individual particle. This is analogous to describing the velocity field in terms of space and time. A fluid particle can accelerate due to a change in velocity in time (unsteady) or in space (moving to a place with a greater velocity).

Kinematic Acceleration Field: Material (Substantial) Derivative

time dependence

spatial dependence

We note: Then, substituting:

The above is good for any fluid particle, so we drop A:

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Kinematic Acceleration Field: Material (Substantial) Derivative

Writing out these terms in vector components: x-direction: y-direction: z-direction: Writing these results in short-hand: where,

() !

x x x i j k , xx xy xz
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Kinematics: Deformation of a Fluid Element

General deformation of fluid element is rather complex, however, we can break the different types of deformation or movement into a superposition of each type.

General Motion

Linear Motion

Rotational Motion Linear deformation Angular Deformation

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Kinematics: Linear Motion and Deformation

Linear Motion/Translation due to u and v velocity: Simplest form of motion the element moves as a solid body. Unlikely to be the only affect as we see velocity gradients in the fluid.

Deformation: Velocity gradients can cause deformation, stretching resulting in a change in volume of the fluid element.

Rate of Change for one direction:

For all 3 directions:

The shape does not change, linear deformation 13 The linear deformation is zero for incompressible fluids.

=0

Kinematics: Angular Motion and Deformation

Angular Motion/Rotation: Angular Motion results from cross derivatives.

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Kinematics: Angular Motion and Deformation

The rotation of the element about the z-axis is the average of the angular velocities :
Counterclockwise rotation is considered positive.

Likewise, about the y-axis, and the x-axis: and The three components gives the rotation vector:

Using vector identities, we note, the rotation vector is one-half the curl of the velocity vector:

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Kinematics: Angular Motion and Deformation

The definition, then of the vector operation is the following:

The vorticity is twice the angular rotation: Vorticity is used to describe the rotational characteristics of a fluid. The fluid only rotates as and undeformed block when otherwise, the rotation also deforms the body. If ,

, then there is no rotation, and the flow is said to be irrotational.

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Kinematics: Angular Motion and Deformation

Angular deformation: The associated rotation gives rise to angular deformation, which results in the change in shape of the element Shearing Strain: Rate of Shearing Strain:

The rate of angular deformation is related to the shear stress. If , the rate of shearing strain is zero.

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Conservation of Mass: Cartesian Coordinates

System: Control Volume:

Now apply to an infinitesimal control volume:

For an infinitesimal control volume: Now, we look at the mass flux in the x-direction: Out: In:
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Conservation of Mass: Cartesian Coordinates

Net rate of mass in the outflow x-direction:

Net rate of mass in the outflow y-direction: Net rate of mass in the outflow z-direction: Net rate of mass flow for all directions:

Now, combining the two parts for the infinitesimal control volume: + Divide out =0
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Conservation of Mass: Cartesian Coordinates

Finally, the differential form of the equation for Conservation of Mass: a.k.a. The Continuity Equation In vector notation, the equation is the following:

If the flow is steady and compressible:

If the flow is steady and incompressible:

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Conservation of Mass: Cylindrical-Polar Coordinates

If the flow is steady and compressible:

If the flow is steady and incompressible:

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Conservation of Mass: Stream Functions

Stream Functions are defined for steady, incompressible, two-dimensional flow. Continuity: Then, we define the stream functions as follows:

Now, substitute the stream function into continuity: It satisfies the continuity condition. The slope at any point along a streamline:
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Conservation of Mass: Stream Functions

Streamlines are constant, thus d= = 0:

Now, calculate the volumetric flow rate between streamlines:

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Conservation of Mass: Stream Functions

In cylindrical coordinates:

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Conservation of Linear Momentum

System: Control Volume: We could apply either approach to find the differential form. It turns out the System approach is better as we dont bound the mass, and allow a differential mass. P is linear momentum,

By system approach, Hm is constant.

If we apply the control volume approach to an infinitesimal control volume, we would end up with the same result.

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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Forces Descriptions

Body forces or surface forces act on the differential element: surface forces act on the surface of the element while body forces are distributed throughout the element (weight is the only body force we are concerned with). Body Forces:

Surface Forces:

Normal Stress:

Shear Stress:

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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Forces Descriptions

Looking at the various sides of the differential element, we must use subscripts to indicate the shear and normal stresses (shown for an x-face).

The first subscript indicates the plane on which the stress acts and the second subscript the direction 27

Conservation of Linear Momentum: Forces Descriptions

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Now, the surface forces acting on a small cubicle element in each direction.

Then the total forces:

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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Equations of Motion

Now, we both sides of the equation in the system approach:

In components:

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Conservation of Linear Momentum: Equations of Motion

Writing out the terms for the Generalize Equation of Motion:

Force Terms Material derivative for a

The motion is rather complex.

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Inviscid Flow
An inviscid flow is a flow in which viscosity effects or shearing effects become negligible. If this is the case, And, we define A compressive force give a positive pressure. The equations of motion for this type of flow then becomes the following:

Eulers Equations
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Inviscid Flow: Eulers Equations

Famous Swiss mathematician who pioneered work on the relationship between pressure and flow. In vector notation Eulers Equation:

Leonhard Euler (1707 1783)

The above equation, though simpler than the generalized equations, are still highly non-linear partial differential equations: There is no general method of solving these equations for an analytical solution. The Eulers equation, for special situations can lead to some useful information about inviscid flow fields.
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Surface Stress Terms for a General Newtonian Fluid

General Stress Elements: Normal Stresses:

W xx !  p  X xx
W yy !  p  X yy

W zz !  p  X zz
Shear Stresses:

Note,

and is known as the second viscosity coefficient

Q is the viscosity of the fluid and for the general form is allowed to be non-constant. 34

Viscous Flows: Surface Stress Terms

Now, we allow viscosity effects for an incompressible Newtonian Fluid: Cartesian Coordinates: Normal Stresses:

Shear Stresses:

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Viscous Flows: Surface Stress Terms

Cylindrical Coordinates: Normal Stresses:

Shear Stresses:

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Viscous Flows: Navier-Stokes Equations

French Mathematician, L. M. H. Navier (1758-1836) and English Mathematician Sir G. G. Stokes (1819-1903) formulated the Navier-Stokes Equations by including viscous effects in the equations of motion. Now plugging the stresses into the differential equations of motion for incompressible flow give Navier-Stokes Equations:

L. M. H. Navier (1758-1836)

Sir G. G. Stokes (1819-1903)

(x direction)

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Viscous Flows: Navier Stokes Equations

Terms in the x-direction:

Local Acceleration

Advective Acceleration (non-linear terms)

Pressure term

Weight term Viscous terms

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Viscous Flows: Navier-Stokes Equations

The governing equations can be written in cylindrical coordinates as well:

(r-direction)

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Viscous Flows: Navier-Stokes Equations

There are very few exact solutions to Navier-Stokes Equations, maybe a total of 80 that fall into 8 categories. The Navier-Stokes equations are highly non-linear and are difficult to solve. Some simple exact solutions presented in the text are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates Couette Flow Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes Steady, Axial Laminar Flow in an Annulus

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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Parallel Plate Flow

Assumptions: 1. Plates are infinite and parallel/horizontal 2. The flow is steady and laminar 3. Fluid flows 2D, in the x-direction only u=u(y) only, v and w = 0 4. Fully develop 5. Incompressible

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Assumptions: 1. Plates are infinite and parallel/horizontal 2. The flow is steady and laminar 3. Fluid flows 2D, in the x-direction only u=u(y) only, v and w = 0 4. Fully develop 5. 5. Incompressible

3
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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Parallel Plate Flow

3 3

Navier-Stokes Equations Simplify Considerably:

(Integrate Twice)

Applying Boundary conditions (no-slip conditions at y =

h) and solve:

The pressure gradient must be specified and is typically constant in this flow! The sign is 43 negative.

Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Parallel Plate Flow

Solution is Parabolic:

Can determine Volumetric Flow Rate:

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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Parallel Plate Flow

3 3

Navier-Stokes Equations Simplify Considerably:

(Integrate Twice)

Applying Boundary conditions (no-slip conditions at y =

h) and solve:

The pressure gradient must be specified and is typically constant in this flow! The sign is 45 negative.

Solution of flow between two flat plates (Couette flow) The differential equation may be solved by integration

d u 1 dp dy 2 dy ! Q dx dy
Hence

du 1 dp ! yA dy Q dx
1 dp y 2 u!  Ay  B Q dx 2

And a further integration wrt y yields

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Boundary conditions
Due to molecular bonding between the fluid and the wall it may be assumed that the fluid velocity on the wall is zero u=0 at y=0 u=0 at y=c This is known as the no-slip condition. To satisfy the first boundary condition, B=0 Then the second b.c. gives

1 dp c 0!  Ac Q dx 2 1 dp c A! Q dx 2

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Quadratic velocity profile for flow in a channel

Substituting the values for A and B into the previous equation gives the quadratic equation:

1 dp 2 u! y  yc 2Q dx
For a long, straight channel, of length l, p decreases with length at a constant rate, so

dp (p ! dx l 1 (p 2 u! y  yc 2Q l

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Graph of velocity profile

08

06

u
04 02 0 0 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 1
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Volume flow rate

To calculate the volume flow rate, integrate from y=0 to y=c y=c dy y=0

dq ! udy
c (p q! 12Q l
3

(p 2 q! yc  y dy 2Ql 0
c

per unit width (z direction)

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Maximum and mean velocity

Max velocity occurs at y=c/2, the centre of the channel

umax

c (p ! 8Q l
2

Mean velocity is gained by dividing the flow rate by the channel width

u ! q/c

c (p 2 u! ! umax 12 Q l 3
2

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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Couette Flow

Again we simplify Navier-Stokes Equations: Same assumptions as before except the no-slip condition at the upper boundary is u(b) = U. Solving,

Dimensionless, The term

Determines effects of pressure gradient

If there is no Pressure Gradient:

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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Pipe Flow

Assumptions: Steady Flow and Laminar Flow Flow is only in the z-direction vz = f(r)

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NavierNavier-Stokes

Note that exactly the same result for the velocity distribution could be derived by solving the NavierStokes equations in radial coordinates.

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Cylindrical Coordinates In cylindrical coordinates (r,U,z) the continuity equation is:

1 x (rvr ) 1 xvU xv z   !0 r xr r xU xz

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Cylindrical Coordinates
The Navier-Stokes equation in the r-direction is:

xvr xvr vU xvr vU2 xvr V xt  vr xr  r xU  r  v z xz ! x 1 x (rvr ) 1 x 2 vr 2 xvU x 2 v z xp   Q  2  2  Vg r  2 2 r x xr xz xr r xr r x

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Cylindrical Coordinates
The Navier-Stokes equation in the U-direction is:

xvU vU xvU vr vU xvU xvU  vr    vz ! r xU r xr xz xt x 1 x (rvU ) 1 x 2 vU 2 xvr x 2 vU 1 xp  2  2   Q  2 2 r xU r xU xz xr r xr r xU

 gU
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Cylindrical Coordinates
The Navier-Stokes equation in the z-direction is:

xv z vU xv z xv z xv z V  vr   vz ! r xU xr xz xt 1 x xv z 1 x 2 v z x 2 v z xp   Q  2  Vg z r  2 2 xz xz r xr xr r xU
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 We will return to the pipe flow problem from the start of the lecture and solve it using the Navier-Stokes equations.

vr ! 0

vU ! 0
Continuity:

1 x (rvr ) 1 xvU xv z   !0 r xr r xU xz
0 0

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 r-direction Navier-Stokes:

xvr xvr vU xvr vU2 xvr V xt  vr xr  r xU  r  v z xz ! x 1 x (rvr ) 1 x 2 vr 2 xvU x 2 v z xp   Q  2  2  Vg r  2 2 xr r xU xz xr r xr r xU xp x vz !Q 2 !0 xr xz

2
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U-direction Navier-Stokes:

xvU vU xvU vr vU xvU xvU V  vr    vz ! r xU r xr xz xt x 1 x ( rvU ) 1 x 2 vU 2 xvr x 2 vU 1 xp  2  2   Q  2 2 r xU r xU xz xr r xr r xU xp !0 xU

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 VgU

 z-direction Navier-Stokes

xv z vU xv z xv z xv z  vr   vz V ! xr xz r xU xt 1 x xv z 1 x 2 v z x 2 v z xp  2  Vg z  Q  r  2 2 xz xz r xr xr r xU xp Q x xv z ! r  Vg z xz r xr xr
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 Integrate:

xp Q x xv z ! r  Vg z xz r xr xr
2 xv z p L  po r  Vg z  c1 ! r xr L 2Q c1 xv z p L  po r  Vg z  ! xr L 2Q r xv z c1 ! 0 to keep finite at r ! 0 xr 2 p L  po r  Vg z vz !  c2 L 4Q
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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Pipe Flow

Solving the equations with the no slip conditions applied at r = R (the walls of the pipe).

Parabolic Velocity Profile

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Viscous Flows: Exact Solutions/Pipe Flow

The volumetric flow rate:

Pressure drop per length of pipe: The mean velocity: Substituing Q, The maximum velocity: Non-Dimensional velocity profile: For Laminar Flow:
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Conservation of Energy
The energy equation is developed similar to the momentum equation for an infinitesimal control volume.

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Conservation of Energy
The energy equation is developed similar to the momentum equation for an infinitesimal control volume. (Heat and Work)

Internal Kinetic

Potential

(Time rate of change following the particle) To get the L.H.S: Differentiate:

Now for the R.H.S., define the fluid properties of Heat and Work: Heat: Heat Conduction into the element, Fouriers Law Heat per Unit Area
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Conservation of Energy
Heat: Heat Conduction into the element, Fouriers Law Heat per Unit Area Heat Flow into the left x-face of the element Heat Flow out of the right x-face of the element The above can be written for all six faces of the cube with the net result between the in and out:

Now, we do a control volume analysis on our control element:

The net heat flow is transferred to the element, neglecting production terms

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Conservation of Energy
Work: Work is done on the element per unit area. on the left x-face on the right x-face We can do the same for the other faces, and the net rate of work done is:

In condensed form:

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Conservation of Energy
We can rewrite the equation using and identity:

We note, then, that from the momentum equation:

Kinetic Now, the rate of change of work is the following: =

Potential

Now, when we substitute work and heat back into the governing equation:

We note potential and kinetic energy portions cancelled on each side!

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Conservation of Energy
Now, we can split the stress tensor into pressure and viscous terms:

Using continuity, we can rewrite the pressure term:

Now, rewriting the Conservation of Energy:

Noting, the definition of fluid enthalpy: And, defining the dissipation function: This term always takes energy from the flow!
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Conservation of Energy
Writing out the terms of Viscous Dissipation for a Newtonian Fluid:

We note,

Now, with the substitutions, the energy equation take the following form:

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Conservation of Energy
Now, lets assume the flow is incompressible: Enthalpy:
F is the thermal expansion coefficient, for a perfect gas the second term goes to zero!

Then, If the flow velocity is low relative to Heat Transfer then terms of order U disappear. If, we assume constant thermal conductivity:

Heat Convection Equation

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Summary of Governing Equations

Most General forms of the Equations: Mass: Momentum: Energy:

Only Assumptions: (1) The fluid is a continuum (2) the particles are essentially in thermodynamics equilibrium (3) Only body forces are gravity (4) The Heat conduction follows Fouriers Law (5) There are no internal heat sources.
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Summary of Governing Equations

Some general comments on the general form of the governing equations: 1. They are a coupled system of non-linear partial differential equations you must solve energy, continuity, and linear momentum simultaneously. No closed form solution exists! 2. For Newtonian flow, the shear and normal stresses can be written in terms of the velocity gradients introducing no new unknowns. 3. There appear to be five equations and nine unknowns in the system of equations: QV, k, p, u, v, w, h, and T. 4. However, we note the following: V ! V ( p, T ), Q ! Q ( p, T )
h ! h( p, T ), k ! k ( p, T )

5. Now, we have five unknowns and five equations

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Summary of Governing Equations

In, general in Fluid Mechanics/CFD we often work with a simplified form of the equations known as the Navier-Stokes Equations:

where, Additional Assumptions: (1) The fluid is Newtonian (2) Incompressible (3) Constant properties (k, VQ)

uncoupled equations: The fluid flow can be solved independent of the Heat Transfer
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Summary of Governing Equations

Some general comments on the Navier-Stokes governing equations: Viscous Flow Equations 1. They are non-linear partial differential equations which are uncoupled in energy, and linear momentum. We can solve linear momentum and continuity equations separately for the flow field without knowledge of the Temperature field (4 Equations, 4 unknowns, u, v, w, p). 2. For Newtonian flow, the shear and normal stresses can be written in terms of the velocity gradients introducing no new unknowns. 3. There appear to be five equations and 5 unknowns in the system of equations: p, u, v, w, and T. 4. If the convective term disappears we have a linear solution. 5. If the convective term remains we have a non-linear solution. 6. The Energy equations relies on the solution of the flow field for its solution.

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Summary of Governing Equations

Summary of the Euler form of the governing equations: Inviscid Flow Equations Linear Momentum:

Continuity and Energy are the same as for Navier-Stokes Equations Some general remarks: (1) The system of equations have five unknowns and five equations (same as Navier-Stokes) (2) Flow is Inviscid (frictionless), Pressure is the only normal stress, and there are no shear stresses. (3) A specialized case of inviscid flow is irrotational flow. (4) The energy and momentum equations are also uncoupled in this set of equations.
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Physical Boundary Conditions

Types of Boundary Conditions: Fluid/Gas-Solid Interface Fluid-Fluid Interface Gas-Fluid Interface

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Physical Boundary Conditions

At a solid boundary: No Slip Condition: At the fluid-boundary interface the velocities must be equal. If the boundary is stationary, then u, v, w = 0. No Temperature Jump: The temperature of the fluid has to equal the temperature of boundary at the interface. Equality of Heat Flux: Heat Flux in the fluid must equal the heat flux of the solid at the interface Examples:
Stationary Solid Boundary Moving Boundary:

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Computational Fluid Dynamics: Differential Analysis

Governing Equations: Navier-Stokes: Continuity: The above equations can not be solved for most practical problems with analytical methods so Computational Fluid Dynamics or experimental methods are employed. The numerical methods employed are the following: 1. Finite difference method 2. Finite element (finite volume) method 3. Boundary element method. These methods provide a way of writing the governing equations in discrete form that can be analyzed with a digital computer.

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Computational Fluid Dynamics: Finite Element

These methods discretize the domain of the flow of interest (Finite Element Method Shown):

The discrete governing equations are solved in every element. This method often leads to 1000 to 10,000 elements with 50,000 equations or more that are solved.

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Computational Fluid Dynamics: Finite Difference

These methods discretize the domain of the flow of interest as well (Finite Difference Method Shown): Finite Difference Mesh:

Comparison between Experiment and CFD Analysis:

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Computational Fluid Dynamics: Pitfalls

Numerical Solutions can diverge or exhibit unstable wiggles. Finer grids may cause instability in the solution rather than better results. Large flow domains can be computationally intensive. Turbulent flows have yet to be well described with CFD.

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Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Equation

Earlier, we derived the Bernoulli Equation from a direct application of Newtons Second Law applied to a fluid particle along a streamline. Now, we derive the equation from the Euler Equation
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782)

First assume steady state: Select, the vertical direction as up, opposite gravity: Use the vector identity: Now, rewriting the Euler Equation:

Rearrange:
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Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Equation

Now, take the dot product with the differential length ds along a streamline:

ds and V are parrallel,

, is perpendicular to V, and thus to ds.

We note, Now, combining the terms:

Integrate:

Then,

1) Inviscid flow 2) Steady flow 3) Incompressible flow 4) Along a streamline

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Inviscid Flow: Irrotational Flow

Irrotational Flow: the vorticity of an irrotational flow is zero. =0 For a flow to be irrotational, each of the vorticity vector components must be equal to zero. The z-component: The x-component lead to a similar result: The y-component lead to a similar result: Uniform flow will satisfy these conditions: There are no shear forces in irrotational flow.
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Inviscid Flow: Irrotational Flow

Example flows, where inviscid flow theory can be used:

Inviscid Region

Viscous Region

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Inviscid Flow: Bernoulli Irrotational Flow

Recall, in the Bernoulli derivation, However, for irrotational flow, .

Thus, for irrotational flow, we do not have to follow a streamline.

Then,

1) Inviscid flow 2) Steady flow 3) Incompressible flow 4) Irrotational Flow

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Potential Flow: Velocity Potential

For irrotational flow there exists a velocity potential:

Take one component of vorticity to show that the velocity potential is irrotational:

Substitute u and v components:

1 x 2J x 2J ! 0 we could do this to show all vorticity components are zero.  2 xxxy xyxx

Then, rewriting the u,v, and w components as a vector: For an incompressible flow: Then for incompressible irrotational flow:

And, the above equation is known as Laplaces Equation.

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Potential Flow: Velocity Potential

Laplacian Operator in Cartesian Coordinates: If a Potential Flow exists, with appropriate boundary conditions, the entire velocity and pressure field can be specified.

Laplacian Operator in Cylindrical Coordinates:

Where the gradient in cylindrical coordinates, the gradient operator, May choose cylindrical coordinates based on the geometry of the flow problem, i.e. pipe flow.

Then,

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Potential Flow: Plane Potential Flows

Laplaces Equation is a Linear Partial Differential Equation, thus there are know theories for solving these equations. Furthermore, linear superposition of solutions is allowed: and where are solutions to Laplaces equation For simplicity, we consider 2D (planar) flows: Cartesian: Cylindrical: We note that the stream functions also exist for 2D planar flows Cartesian: Cylindrical:
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Potential Flow: Plane Potential Flows

For irrotational, planar flow: Now substitute the stream function: Then, Laplaces Equation

For plane, irrotational flow, we use either the potential or the stream function, which both must satisfy Laplaces equations in two dimensions. Lines of constant = are streamlines: Now, the change of N from one point (x, y) to a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy):

Along lines of constant J we have dJ = 0,

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Potential Flow: Plane Potential Flows

Lines of constant Jare called equipotential lines. The equipotential lines are orthogonal to lines of constant =, streamlines where they intersect. The flow net consists of a family of streamlines and equipotential lines. The combination of streamlines and equipotential lines are used to visualize a graphical flow situation.
The velocity is inversely proportional to the spacing between streamlines. Velocity decreases along this streamline.

Velocity increases along this streamline.

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Potential Flow: Uniform Flow

The simplest plane potential flow is a uniform flow in which the streamlines are all parallel to each other. Consider a uniform flow in the x-direction: Integrate the two equations:
J = Ux + f(y) + C J = f(x) + C

Matching the solution C is an arbitrary constant, can be set to zero: Now for the stream function solution: Integrating the two equations similar to above.

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Potential Flow: Uniform Flow

For Uniform Flow in an Arbitrary direction, E

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Potential Flow: Source and Sink Flow

Source Flow: Source/Sink Flow is a purely radial flow. Fluid is flowing radially from a line through the origin perpendicular to the x-y plane. Let m be the volume rate emanating from the line (per unit length. Then, to satisfy mass conservation: Since the flow is purely radial: Now, the velocity potential can be obtained:

Integrate

If m is positive, the flow is radially outward, source flow. If m is negative, the flow is radially inward, sink flow.

m is the strength of the source or sink!

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This potential flow does not exist at r = 0, the origin, because it is not a real flow, but can approximate flows.

Potential Flow: Source and Sink Flow

Now, obtain the stream function for the flow:

Then, integrate to obtain the solution:

The streamlines are radial lines and the equipotential lines are concentric circles centered about the origin:
J lines =lines

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Potential Flow: Vortex Flow

In vortex flow the streamlines are concentric circles, and the equipotential lines are radial lines. Solution: where K is a constant. The sign of K determines whether the flow rotates clockwise or counterclockwise.

, The tangential velocity varies inversely with the distance from the origin. At the origin it encounters a singularity becoming infinite.
J lines =lines
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In this case,

Potential Flow: Vortex Flow

How can a vortex flow be irrotational? Rotation refers to the orientation of a fluid element and not the path followed by the element. Rotational Flow: Forced Vortex Irrotational Flow: Free Vortex
Velocity increases inward.
i.e., water draining from a bathtub

Velocity increases outward.

i.e., a rotating tank filled with fluid

Irrotational Flow:

Traveling from A to B, consider two sticks Rotational Flow: Rigid Body Rotation
Initially, sticks aligned, one in the flow direction, and the other perpendicular to the flow. As they move from A to B they sticks move in a rigid body motion, and thus the flow is rotational. 100

Initially, sticks aligned, one in the flow direction, and the other perpendicular to the flow. As they move from A to B the perpendicular-aligned stick rotates clockwise, while the flow-aligned stick rotates counter clockwise. The average angular velocities cancel each other, thus, the flow is irrotational.

Potential Flow: Vortex Flow

A combined vortex flow is one in which there is a forced vortex at the core, and a free vortex outside the core. A Hurricane is approximately a combined vortex

Circulation is a quantity associated with vortex flow. It is defined as the line integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken around a closed curve in the flow field.

For irrotational flow the circulation is generally zero. 101

Potential Flow: Vortex Flow

However, if there are singularities in the flow, the circulation is not zero if the closed curve includes the singularity.
Beaker Vortex:

For the free vortex:

The circulation is non-zero and constant for the free vortex: The velocity potential and the stream function can be rewritten in terms of the circulation:

An example in which the closed surface circulation will be zero:

102

Potential Flow: Doublet Flow

Combination of a Equal Source and Sink Pair:

Rearrange and take tangent,

Note, the following: Substituting the above expressions, Then,

and

If a is small, then tangent of angle is approximated by the angle:

103

Potential Flow: Doublet Flow

Now, we obtain the doublet flow by letting the source and sink approach one another, and letting the strength increase.

is then constant.

K is the strength of the doublet, and is equal to ma/T

The corresponding velocity potential then is the following:

Streamlines of a Doublet:

104

Potential Flow: Summary of Basic Flows

105

Potential Flow: Superposition of Basic Flows

Because Potential Flows are governed by linear partial differential equations, the solutions can be combined in superposition. Any streamline in an inviscid flow acts as solid boundary, such that there is no flow through the boundary or streamline. Thus, some of the basic velocity potentials or stream functions can be combined to yield a streamline that represents a particular body shape. The superposition representing a body can lead to describing the flow around the body in detail.

106

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Half-Body

The Rankine Half-Body is a combination of a source and a uniform flow. Stream Function (cylindrical coordinates):

Potential Function (cylindrical coordinates):

There will be a stagnation point, somewhere along the negative x-axis where the source and uniform flow cancel (U!T  Evaluate the radial velocity: For the source: For the uniform flow: vr ! U cos U For U!T vr ! U Then for a stagnation point, at some r = -b, U = T:

vr ! 

m and 2T

107

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Half-Body

Now, the stagnation streamline can be defined by evaluating ]at r = b, and U=T. Now, we note that m/2 = TbU, so following this constant streamline gives the outline of the body:

Then,

describes the half-body outline.

So, the source and uniform can be used to describe an aerodynamic body. The other streamlines can be obtained by setting ] constant and plotting:
Half-Body:

108

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Half-Body

The width of the half-body: Total width then, The magnitude of the velocity at any point in the flow: and

Noting,

Knowing, the velocity we can now determine the pressure field using the Bernoulli Equation: Po and U are at a point far away from the body and are known.

109

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Half-Body

Notes on this type of flow: Provides useful information about the flow in the front part of streamlined body. A practical example is a bridge pier or a strut placed in a uniform stream In a potential flow the tangent velocity is not zero at a boundary, it slips The flow slips due to a lack of viscosity (an approximation result). At the boundary, the flow is not properly represented for a real flow. Outside the boundary layer, the flow is a reasonable representation. The pressure at the boundary is reasonably approximated with potential flow. The boundary layer is to thin to cause much pressure variation.

110

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Oval

Rankine Ovals are the combination a source, a sink and a uniform flow, producing a closed body.

Some equations describing the flow: Potential and Stream Function

The body half-length

The body half-width Iterative

111

Superposition of Potential Flows: Rankine Oval

Notes on this type of flow: Provides useful information about the flow about a streamlined body. At the boundary, the flow is not properly represented for a real flow. Outside the boundary layer, the flow is a reasonable representation. The pressure at the boundary is reasonably approximated with potential flow. Only the pressure on the front of the body is accurate though. Pressure outside the boundary is reasonably approximated.

112

Superposition of Potential Flows: Flow Around a Circular Cylinder Combines a uniform flow and a doublet flow: and Then require that the stream function is constant for r = a, where a is the radius of the circular cylinder: K = Ua2 Then, Then the velocity components: and

113

Superposition of Potential Flows: Flow Around a Circular Cylinder At the surface of the cylinder (r = a): The maximum velocity occurs at the top and bottom of the cylinder, magnitude of 2U.

114

Superposition of Potential Flows: Flow Around a Circular Cylinder Pressure distribution on a circular cylinder found with the Bernoulli equation

Then substituting for the surface velocity:

Theoretical and experimental agree well on the front of the cylinder. Flow separation on the back-half in the real flow due to viscous effects causes differences between the theory and experiment.

115

Superposition of Potential Flows: Flow Around a Circular Cylinder The resultant force per unit force acting on the cylinder can be determined by integrating the pressure over the surface (equate to lift and drag). (Drag)

(Lift)

Substituting, Evaluating the integrals:

Jean le Rond dAlembert (1717-1783)

Both drag and lift are predicted to be zero on fixed cylinder in a uniform flow? Mathematically, this makes sense since the pressure distribution is symmetric about cylinder, ahowever, in practice/experiment we see substantial drag on a circular cylinder (dAlemberts Paradox, 17171783). Viscosity in real flows is the Culprit Again!

116