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Reservoir Fluids

Reservoir Fluids

Schlumberger 1999

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Reservoir Fluids

Definitions
Fluid Contacts

Oil in Place

OIP

The volume of oil in the reservoir in barrels or cubic metres.

Gas/Oil Ratio

GOR

The gas content of the oil.

API Gravity

API

Oil gravity.

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Fluids in a Reservoir
A reservoir normally contains either water or hydrocarbon or a mixture. The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or gas. The specific hydrocarbon produced depends on the reservoir pressure and temperature. The formation water may be fresh or salty. The amount and type of fluid produced depends on the initial reservoir pressure, rock properties and the drive mechanism.

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Hydrocarbon Composition
Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction
Hydrocarbon C1 Dry gas .88 C2 .045 .08 .08 .03 .03 C3 .045 .04 .05 .05 .01 C4 .01 .04 .04 .05 .01 C5 .01 .04 .03 .04 .04 C6+ .01 .08 .15-.2 .42 .8 1.0

Condensate .72 Volatile oil .6-.65 Black oil Heavy oil Tar/bitumen .41 .11

The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.
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Hydrocarbon Structure

The major constituent of hydrocarbons is paraffin.

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Hydrocarbon Classification
Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The table gives some typical values:
GOR API Gravity

Wet gas Condensate Volatile oil Black oil Heavy oil Tar/bitumen

100mcf/b 5-100mcf/b 3000cf/b 100-2500cf/b 0 0

50-70 50-70 40-50 30-40 10-30 <10

The specific gravity of an oil is defined as:

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Hydrocarbon Gas
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane, CH4. Some heavier gases make up the rest. Gas can contain impurities such as Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S and Carbon Dioxide, CO2. Gases are classified by their specific gravity which is defined as: "The ratio of the density of the gas to that of air at the same temperature and pressure".

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Reservoir Pressure

Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the gradient in the aquifer. High pressures exist in some reservoirs.
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Reservoir Pressure Calculation

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Reservoir Pressure Example

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Reservoir Temperature Gradient

The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The temperature can be determined if the depth is known. High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.
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Fluid Phases
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or oil. In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium, depending on the pressure and temperature. The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT). There are two simple ways of showing this: Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant. Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.

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PVT Experiment

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Phase Diagram -single component

The experiment is conducted at different temperatures. The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made. The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point and Dew Point. (For a single component they coincide.)

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Phase diagram Oil

The Pressure/Temperature (PT) phase diagram for an oil reservoir: Point 'A' is the initial reservoir condition of pressure and temperature. If the reservoir is produced at a constant temperature until the fluid reaches the wellbore, the line to Point 'B' is drawn. This represents the flow of fluid from the reservoir to the borehole. The fluid travelling to surface now drops in both temperature and pressure arriving at he "separator conditions" (s) with a final volume of oil and gas.

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Phase Diagram Condensate/Gas

Point 'C' is at the initial reservoir conditions. The reservoir is produced at a constant temperature from C to D. Fluids flowing up the well now drop in temperature and pressure, crossing the Dew point line and liquid condenses out. At separator conditions (s) the result in both liquid and gas on the surface.

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Gas Reservoir
In a gas reservoir the initial point is A. Producing the well to separator conditions B does not change the fluid produced. The point B is still in the "gas region" and hence dry gas is produced.

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Hydrocarbon Volumes
Fluids at bottom hole conditions produce different fluids at surface: Oil becomes oil plus gas. Gas usually stays as gas unless it is a Condensate. Water stays as water with occasionally some dissolved gas.

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FVF Oil and Gas

There is a change in volume between downhole conditions and the surface. The volume of the fluid at reference conditions is described by the Formation Volume Factor: Volume at downhole Conditions FVF = Volume at reference Conditions

Bo = formation volume factor for oil. Bw = formation volume factor for water. Bg = formation volume factor for gas.

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Saturation
Formation saturation is defined as the fraction of its pore volume (porosity) occupied by a given fluid. Volume of a specific fluid Saturation = pore volume Definitions Sw = water saturation. So = oil saturation. Sg = gas saturation. Sh = hydrocarbon saturation = So + Sg Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g. Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20% contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.

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Saturation Definition

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Wettability

The wettability defines how a fluid adheres to the surface (or rock in the reservoir) when there are two fluids present, e.g. water and air. The angle measured through the water is the "contact angle". If it is less than 90 the rock is water wet; greater than 90 the rock is oil wet. Most reservoir rocks are water wet.

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Irreducible Water Saturation

In a formation the minimum saturation induced by displacement is where the wetting phase becomes discontinuous. In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water saturation, Swirr. Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water saturation compared to small-grained formations because the capillary pressure is smaller.

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Capillary Forces

Pc = capillary pressure. W = surface tension. q = contact angle. rcap = radius of capillary tube.

In a simple water and air system the wettability gives rise to a curved interface between the two fluids. This experiment has a glass tube attached to a reservoir of water. The water "wets" the glass. This causes the pressure on the concave side (water) to exceed that on the convex side (air). This excess pressure is the capillary pressure.

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Capillary Forces and Rocks

In a reservoir the two fluids are oil and water which are immiscible hence they exhibit capillary pressure phenomena. This is seen by the rise in the water above the point where the capillary pressure is zero.

The height depends on the density difference and the radius of the capillaries.
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Transition Zone
The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the oil zone. The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes. The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the density difference between the two fluids.

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Relative Permeability
Take a core 100% water-saturated. (A) Force oil into the core until irreducible water saturation is attained (Swirr). (A-> C -> D) Reverse the process: force water into the core until the residual saturation is attained. (B) During the process, measure the relative permeabilities to water and oil.

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Relative Permeability Experiment

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Drive Mechanisms
A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by the local gradient. Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to drive the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be pumped). As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops. The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the Reservoir Drive Mechanism. Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands to fill the space vacated by the produced fluid. Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are: Water drive. Gas cap drive. Gas solution drive
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Water Invasion 1
Water invading an oil zone, moves close to the grain surface, pushing the oil out of its way in a pistonlike fashion.

The capillary pressure gradient forces water to move ahead faster in the smaller pore channels.

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Water Invasion 2
The remaining thread of oil becomes smaller.

It finally breaks into smaller pieces.

As a result, some drops of oil are left behind in the channel.

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Water Drive

Water moves up to fill the "space" vacated by the oil as it is produced.

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Water Drive 2

This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly constant. After the initial dry oil production, water may be produced. The amount of produced water increases as the volume of oil in the reservoir decreases. Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form produced gas.
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Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than oil and takes the path of least resistance along the centre of the larger channels. As a result, oil is left behind in the smaller, less permeable, channels.

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Gas Cap Drive

Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space vacated by the produced oil.

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Gas Cap Drive 2

As oil production declines, gas production increases. Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.

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Solution Gas Drive

After some time the oil in the reservoir is below the bubble point.
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Solution Gas Drive 2

An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline. The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to the higher permeability to gas. The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.

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Drives General
A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place. A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater reduction in pressure. A solution gas drive has a low recovery.

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Drive Problems
Water Drive: Water can cone upwards and be produced through the lower perforations. Gas Cap Drive: Gas can cone downwards and be produced through the upper perforations. Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas expands. Gas Solution Drive: Gas production can occur in the reservoir, skin damage. Very short-lived.

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Secondary Recovery 1
Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques used to augment the natural drive of a reservoir or boost production at a later stage in the life of a reservoir. A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques to maximise its production. Common recovery methods are: Water injection. Gas injection. In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing heavy oil, more advanced recovery methods are used: Steam flood. Polymer injection. . CO2 injection. In-situ combustion.

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Secondary Recovery 2
water injection

gas injection

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