Unit 1

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
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Unit 1: Introduction :

Introduction to Database Database Systems Vs File Systems View of data Data Models Data base languages Transaction Management Database systems Structure History of Database Systems Database Systems Applications Entity Relationship Model
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INTRODUCTION
What
Data Data
is Data ?
is stored facts.
may be numerical data which may be integers or floating point numbers, and non-numerical data such as characters, date and etc.,
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Example:
98 89 87 92 phy chem maths biology
The above numbers may be anything: It may be distance in kms or amount in rupees or no of days or marks in each subject etc.,
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What is information ?
Information is RELATED DATA. The data ( information) which is used by an organisation a college, a library, a bank, a manufacturing company is one of its most valuable resources.
phy chem maths biology

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98 89 87 92
5
What is Database ?
Database is a collection of information organized in such a way that a computer program can quickly select desired pieces of data.
98 89 87 92
76 87 79 88

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86 80 79 88
91 67 87 77
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Database Management System (DBMS)

A collection of programs that enables you to store, modify, and extract information from a database.

DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise

Collection of interrelated data Set of programs to access the data An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
Database Applications:
Banking: all transactions Airlines: reservations, schedules Universities: registration, grades Sales: customers, products, purchases Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
Databases touch all aspects of our lives
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Database Systems Vs File Systems

In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file systems Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:

Data redundancy and inconsistency

Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
Difficulty in accessing data

Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
Data isolation multiple files and formats Integrity problems

Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become buried in program code rather than being stated explicitly Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
Database Systems Vs File Systems Cont.

Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

Atomicity of updates
Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users

Concurrent accessed needed for performance Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Example: Two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time
Security problems
Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
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View of data Data Abstraction:

Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., customer) is stored. Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among the data.
type customer = record customer_id : string; customer_name : string; customer_street : string; customer_city : integer;
end; (PASCAL CODE)
View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also hide information (such as an employees salary) for security purposes.
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View of data Contd.

An architecture for a database system:
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Instances and Schemas

Similar to types and variables in programming languages Schema the logical structure of the database
Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and accounts and the relationship between them) Analogous to type information of a variable in a program Physical schema: database design at the physical level Logical schema: database design at the logical level
Instance the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

Analogous to the value of a variable
Physical Data Independence the ability to modify the physical schema without changing the logical schema
Applications depend on the logical schema In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence others.
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DB
Schema Diagram for a Company:
Employee:
Eno
Ename
Salary
Address
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DB Schema Diagram for a Company:
Department: Dno Project: Pno

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Dname
Dlocation
Pname
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Instance
Example: Ename
A B C
Eno
1 2 3
Salary
10,000 20,000 30,000
Address
First street Second street Third street
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Data Independence
Three schema architecture for a database system: External schema View1 View2 View n
Conceptual Schema Internal/Physic al level Internal Schema
Conceptual mapping
Disk
Data Independence
Two
types of Data Independence Logical Data Independence

Capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change external schema
Physical
Data Independence
Capacity to change the Internal schema without having to change external schema
DBMS Languages:
Types
Data Definition Language( DDL) storage definition language (SDL) storage definition language (SDL)
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Data Manipulation Language (DML) Procedural DML
Non-Procedural DML
DBMS Languages
Data Definition Language (DDL):
Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas. SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the DBA and database designers
DBMS Languages
Data Manipulation Language (DDL):

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Used to specify database retrievals and updates DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-purpose programming language (AKA host language), such as COBOL, C, C++, or Java. Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (called a query language).
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Data Definition Language (DDL):
Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal and external schemas (views). In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas.
SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the DBA and database designers
Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data model DML also known as query language Two classes of languages Procedural user specifies what data is required and how to get those data Declarative (nonprocedural) user specifies what data is required without specifying how to get those data SQL is the most widely used query language

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Specification notation for defining the database schema Example: create table account ( account-number char(10), balance integer) DDL compiler generates a set of tables stored in a data dictionary Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data) Database schema Data storage and definition language Specifies the storage structure and access methods used Integrity constraints Domain constraints Referential integrity (references constraint in SQL) Assertions Authorization
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DDL statements/commands in SQL

Create table table name(list of attribute & their datatypes); Create schema schema name authorization author name; Drop schema schema name cascade/restrict; Drop table tablename cascade/restrict; Alter table talename add/drop Create view view name as (select ..)
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Transaction Management
A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database application Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures. Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

Database users and DBA (Database Administrator)
Database users
can classify users of db into many types. Nave users Application Programmers Sophisticated users Specialized users
We
Database users

Nave users:
- who interact with the system by invoking one of the

application programs that have been previously written. Application Programmers: - Computer professionals who write application programs. Sophisticated users - form their requests in a db query language such as SQL and submit them to a query processor. Specialized users: - Sophisticated users who write specialized db applications
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DBA (Database Administrator)

DBA is a person who has central control over the system. DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the db. DBA is responsible for acquiring s/w and h/w resources. DBA is responsible for coordinating and monitoring the use of db. DBA creates original db schema by executing a set of data definition stmts in DDL.
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Overall System Structure
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Database system Structure

The
functional components can be broadly divided into the manager Query Processor.
Storage
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Storage Manager

It is a pgm module that provides the interface b/w the low level data stored in the db and the app.pgms & queries submitted to the system. It translates the various DML statements into file system commands. It is responsible for storing, retrieving and updating data in the database.
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Storage Manager

The storage manager components includes:
Authorization & Integrity Manager: - It tests for the satisfication of integrity constraints and checks the authority of users to access data. File Manager: - allocation of files and disk & data structures used to represent information stored on disk.
Storage Manager
Buffer

Manger:
- to decide what data to cache in mainmemory in orde to speed up the accessing of data. Transaction Manager: - db remains in a consistent state despite system failures and that concurrent transaction execution proceed without conflicting.
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Storage Manager
The
SM implements several DS such
as,
Data files which store db Data dictionary which stores meta data about the structure of the db. Indices: It is a file that provides fast access of data items that hold particular values.

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Query Processor

It includes DDL Interpreter: - which interprets DDL sts and records the definitions in the data dictionary. DML Compiler: - It translates DML sts into an evaluation plan consisting of low level instructions that the qury evaluation engine understands. Query Evaluation Engine: -Which executes low level instructions generated by DML compiler.
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Data Models

A collection of tools for describing

Data Data relationships Data semantics Data constraints

Relational model Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design) Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Objectrelational) Semistructured data model (XML) Other older models:
Network model Hierarchical model
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Data Models
A Data
model is a set of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of the db.
A collection of Conceptual tools for describing Data Data relationships Data semantics Data constraints Different data Models - Relational model - Entity-Relationship data model (Conceptual Model-mainly for database design) - Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational) - Semi structured data model (XML) Other older models: Network model Hierarchical model

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EntityEntity-Relationship data model

It is a high level conceptual data model that describes the structure of db in terms of entities, relationship among entities & constraints on them..
Basic Concepts of E-R Model:
- Entity
- Entity Set - Attributes - Relationship - Relationship set - Identifying Relationship

I

Entity:
-It is a an object that exists in the real world. Example: - Person, Employee, Car, Home etc..
Object with conceptual Existence - Account, loan, job etc

Entity
Set: - A set of entities of the same type. Attributes: - A set of properties that describe an entity.

Types of Attributes:
Simple (or) atomic vs. Composite: - An attribute which cant be sub divided. (Eg.Age) - An attribute which can be divided into sub parts is called as composite attribute. Address- Apartment no. e.g.. - Street - Place - City - District Single Valued vs. Multivalued: -An attribute having only one value (e.g.. Age,eid,sno) - An attribute having multiple values (e.g.. Deptlocat- A dept can be located in several places)

Stored Vs Derived - Stored attribute is one that has some value

where as derived attribute is a one where its value is derived from sa. -E.g.. SA-DOB DA- Age derived from DOB. Key Attribute: - An attribute which is used to uniquely identify records. E.g.. eid, sno, dno

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Relationship:
- It is an association among
several entities. It specifies what type of relationship exists between entities.
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E N T I T Y S E T
Relationship set: - It is a set of relationships of the same type. Entity

1 AA 1000 1 AA AC
BB
2000
BB
AD
100
FFF 10000
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100
FFF
SD
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TYPE
44 DEPT. ENTITY TYPE

Entity Set: - No key attributes. Identifying Relationship: - The relationship associated with the weak entity type
Weak
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Constraints

Two of the most important constraints are
a. Mapping Constraints b. Participation constraints

Participation constraints
Total Participation
Partial Participation
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a. Mapping Cardinalities:
Mapping Cardinalities OR CARDINALITY RATIOS, EXPRESSS THE NUMBER OF ENTITIES TO WHICH ANOTHER ENTITY CAN BE ASSOCIATED VIA A RELATIONSHIPSET.

Several types of Mapping Cardinalities. They are, a.i. One-to-One An entity in set A is associated with at most one entity in set B and vice versa.
e1 e2 e3
d1 d2 d3
Employee
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Works for
Dept.
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a.i. One-to-many An entity in set A is associated with zero or more no. of entities in set B and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.

e1 e2 e3
d1 d2 d3 Works for
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Employee
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Dept.
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a.i. Many-to-One One or more no. of entities in set A is associated with at most one entity in B. An entity in B can be associated with any no. of entities in A.

e1 e2 e3 e4 Employee
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d1 d2 d3 Works for
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a.i.
Many-to-Many One or more no. of entities in set A is associated with one or more no. of entities in set B.
e1 e2 e3 e4 Employee
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d1 d2 d3 Works for
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b. Participation Constraints: Constraints: Total Participation

The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be total if every entity in E participates in atleast one relationship in R.
Partial Participation:
an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be partial if only a few of the entities in E participated in relationship in R.
The participation of
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b. Participation Constraints: Constraints:

E.G..
Employee Partial participation
Manages Total participation
Dept.
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Keys
It
is used to uniquely identify entities within a given entityset or a relationship set. Keys in Entity set: (i) Primary Key:
It is a key used to uniquely identify an entity in the entity set. E,g, eno,rno,dno etc
Keys
Super
Key: It is a set of one or more attributes that allow us to uniquely identify an entity in the entity set. Among them one must be a primary key attribute. E.G.. Eid (primary key) and ename together can be identify an entity in entity set.
Keys

Candidate key: They are minimal super keys for which no proper subset is a superkey. E.g.. Ename and eaddr can be sufficient to identify an employee in employee set. {eid} and {ename,eaddr} Candidate keys
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FOREIGN Keys
An
-----------------------
attribute which makes a reference to an attribute of another entity type is called foreign key
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Key

E.g
Employee E1 eid Ename eaddr dno
Foreign Key
dno
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dname
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dloc Dept E2
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Domain

A range of values can be defined for an attribute and is called as Domain of that attribute.

E.g.. Age attribute A Domain (A)= {1,2,.100}
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Keys in Relationship set:

Case 1: If the relationship set R has
no attributes, then the set of attributes Primarykey(E1) U Primarykey(E2) U Primarykey (n) Case2: If the relationship set R has attributes, then the set of attributes,
Keys in Relationship set

Primarykey(E1) U Primarykey(E2) U Primarykey (n)U{a1,a2,an} describes an individual relationship in set R. In both cases, Primarykey(E1) U Primarykey(E2) U Primarykey (n) forms a superkey for a relationship set.
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E-R Diagram
Symbol
Description
Entity Type Attribute
Key Attribute
E-R Diagram
Symbol Description
Composite Attribute
Multivalued attribute Attribute
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E-R Diagram
Symbol Description
Derived Attribute
Relationship
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E-R Diagram
Symbol
Description
Identifying Relationship
Weak Entity Type
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E-R Diagram
Symbol
Description
R E2
Total participation of E2 in R & Partial Participation of E1 in R
E1
1 E1 R R
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1 E2
Min,max
Cardinality Ratio
Structural constraints (min,max) on participation of 65 Environmental in R
E2
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Recursive Relationship
If
the same entity type partcipates in a relationship more than once in different roles. E.g.. Employee
Supervise Supervisor Supervising
Design of an E-R Database Schema EThe steps involved in designing an E-R database schema are, Identify entity types and their entity sets. List out the attributes of each entity type. Relate several entities by specifyiing some relationship that exists among them. Specify some attributes of relation if any. Specify Generalization and specialization any exists. Specify Aggregation (global) if any used.

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Design Process:

The main phases involved in designing a ER db schema is shown below,
Mini world Requirements collection & Analysis

Data Requirements
Functional Requirements
Functional Analysis
High level Transaction specification DBMS Independent
Conceptual Design
Conceptual schema
Logical Design
Application program Design Transaction 6/15/2011 implementation
DBMS Specific
Logical schema
Physical design
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App.pgms
Internal Schema
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Requirements collection & Analysis

The db designers interview db users to understand & document their requirements. They find out data requirements (what data are stored in the db).
Conceptual Design:

Once the requirements are documented , the next step is to create conceptual schema which carried out in conceptual design Phase. It describes the structure of a db in the form of entity type, relationship among them & constraints.
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Logical Design

The actual implementation of the db is carried out using DBMS.
Physical Design

The last phase is the internal storage structures, indexes, access paths, and file organizations for the db files are specified. In parallel with these activities, Application programs are designed and implemented as db transactions.
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EER Model- Enhanced or Extended E-R model ModelE
Using E-R model only the basic features of a db. Some enhanced features such as Specialization, Generalization, Union & aggregation can be shown using EER model.
A.
SPECIALIZATION: The process of designating sub grouping within an entity set..
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E.g..
eid ename Employee Mgrid eaddr Job
Typing speed
IS A
Secretary
Technician
Manager
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It is also represented as
eid ename Employee Job Type eaddr
Defining attribute
Job
Salary Type
d
Secretary Technician Manager Hourly
d
Regular
Sub classes
Generalization
The
process of defining a generalized entity type from the given entity types.
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E.g
No. of seats Vehicle ID
Vehicle ID
Tonnage
CAR
TRUCK
Max speed
Price
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No. Of Axles
Price
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Vehicle ID
Price Vehicle
d
CAR Max speed

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TRUCK No. of seats - B.U.Anu Barathi Tonnage No. Of Axles

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History of Database Systems

1950s and early 1960s:

Data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provide only sequential access
Punched cards for input

Late 1960s and 1970s:

Hard disks allow direct access to data Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work IBM Research begins System R prototype UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

History (cont.)

1980s:
Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
Parallel and distributed database systems Object-oriented database systems

1990s:
Large decision support and data-mining applications Large multi-terabyte data warehouses Emergence of Web commerce
2000s:
XML and XQuery standards Automated database administration
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Relational Model:
It
uses a collection of tables to represent both data and relationships among those data. Basic Structure this model each table is called as relation. Each relation has a no. of row is called tuples and columns called as fields or attributes.
In
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Relational Model:
For
an attribute, a range of permitted values can be specified. That range is called as Domain of that attribute. Age attribute Domain (Age) = {1,2100}
E.g..
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Relational Model:
A
table of n attributes must be a subset of D1*D2*.Dn Employee Relation E.g..

Eid
1 2 3
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Ename
Aaa Bbb ccc
Eaddr
South street West street New

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Relational Model:
To
denote the value of attribute a on second tuple, then it can be denoted as t2[a]=value. E.g.. t2[ename]=bbb.
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Relation schema
It
is the description about the structure of the relation and the relation instance is the snapshot of data in the relation at a given instant in time.
E.g.. Employee_schema=(eid,ename,eaddr) Name of the schema
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Relation schema

Empoyee(Employee_schema) denote that Employee is a relation on Employee_schema
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Keys
Strong
Entity set:
The Primary key of the entity set becomes the primary key of the relation.
Weak
Entity Set:
The table corresponding a weak entity set includes the attributes of the weak entity set & primary key of the strong entity set on which the weak entity set depends.
Keys
Relationship Set: The union of the primary key of the related entity sets becomes a super key of the relation. Combined Tables: If there exists many to one relationship set from A to B, then the prim.key of A becomes the prim.key of the relation & the relation consists of the attribues of A and attributes of the relationship set.
Keys
Foreign Key: An attribute of a relation r1 that references relation r2 is called as foreign key attribute. Schema Diagram: A relation schema can be depicted pictorially by schema diagram,
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Keys
E.g..
Employee Ename eaddr dno
eid Dept dno Project

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dname pname - B.U.Anu Barathi
dloc eid
pno
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Query Languages:
It
is a lang in which a user requests information from db.
Query Languages
Non Procedural Language Specifies what data are Specifies what data are required without specify how required & specify how to get to get those data e.g. those data e.g Relational 6/15/2011 - B.U.Anu Barathi 90 Relational calculus Algebra Procedural Language
Relational Algebra

It consistes of a set of operations Select Project Union Set difference Intersection Cartesian Product Join Division Rename
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Select

It selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate, To denote selection

(Sigma) is
used.
Syntax:
cond (Table name)
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Select
E.g..
Sal>1000 (Employee)
Selects tuples whose emp sal is > 1000
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Project
It
selects attributes from the relation. II Symbol for project Syntax: ll <Attribute (table name)
list>
E.g
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ll Eid,sal (employee)
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Selects all tuples from emp relation & only eid & sal attributes are projected 94
Join
Natural
Join (or) Equi Join Outer Join Natural Join (or) Equi Join
- Used to combine related tuples from two relations.
- It requires that the two join attributes have the same name. - Symbol:
Join
Syntax:
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Select Operation:
It
selects tupules that satisfy a given predicate. To denote selection -
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END OF UNIT-1 UNITReferences: Database system concepts Siberschatz, korth and sudharsan
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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

phy chem maths biology

phy chem maths biology

phy chem maths biology

phy chem maths biology

phy chem maths biology

Database Management System (DBMS)

DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise

Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Database Systems Vs File Systems

Data redundancy and inconsistency

Difficulty in accessing data

Data isolation multiple files and formats Integrity problems

Database Systems Vs File Systems Cont.

Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

Concurrent access by multiple users

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

View of data Data Abstraction:

View of data Contd.

Instances and Schemas

Instance the actual content of the database at a particular point in time

Instances and Schemas

Schema Diagram for a Company:

Instances and Schemas

Department: Dno Project: Pno

Instances and Schemas

Conceptual Schema Internal/Physic al level Internal Schema

types of Data Independence  Logical Data Independence

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Procedural DML

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Data Definition Language (DDL):

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL statements/commands in SQL

Database users and DBA (Database Administrator)

Database users and DBA (Database Administrator)

- who interact with the system by invoking one of the

Database users and DBA (Database Administrator)

DBA (Database Administrator)

Overall System Structure

Database system Structure

The storage manager components includes:

SM implements several DS such

A collection of tools for describing

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

Basic Concepts of E-R Model:

- Entity Set - Attributes - Relationship - Relationship set - Identifying Relationship

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

Stored Vs Derived - Stored attribute is one that has some value

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

Relationship set: - It is a set of relationships of the same type. Entity

6/15/2011 Emp.. ENTITY

44 DEPT. ENTITY TYPE

EntityEntity-Relationship data model

Two of the most important constraints are

a. Mapping Constraints  b. Participation constraints

b. Participation Constraints: Constraints: Total Participation

b. Participation Constraints: Constraints:

Employee Partial participation

types of Data Independence Logical Data Independence

Data Definition Language (DDL):

a. Mapping Constraints b. Participation constraints

EER Model- Enhanced or Extended E-R model ModelE

table of n attributes must be a subset of D1D2.Dn Employee Relation E.g..

selects tupules that satisfy a given predicate. To denote selection -