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Report Writing

The components of your report


         Title page Table of Contents Executive Summary Introduction Body Conclusions Recommendations Bibliography Appendices

Title page
 Title uppercase letters  Next: Presented to (or Submitted to) N. AlAlRubaiee  Title and organisation of the individual receiving the report  Lower on the page is Prepared by (or Submitted by) and the author's name plus any necessary identification.  The date of submission

Executive Summary
 While the business plans executive
summary is the first thing the readers of your business plan see, it should be the last part of the business plan you write.

Executive Summary
 The executive summary will end with a
summary statement, a last kick at the can sentence or two designed to persuade the readers of your business plan that your business is a winner.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


1. Pet Grandma offers on-site pet sitting services onfor dogs and cats, providing the personal loving pet care that the owners themselves would provide if they were there. 2. Our clients are dog and cat owners who choose to leave their pets at home when they travel or who want their pets to have company when their owners are at work. Pet Grandma offers a variety of pet care services from day visits through 24 hour care over a period of weeks all in the pets home environment.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


3. Across Canada the pet care business has seen an explosion of growth over the last three years. West Vancouver is an affluent area with a high pet density. Our market research has shown that 9 out of 10 pet owners polled in West Vancouver would prefer to have their pets cared for in their own homes when they travel rather than be kenneled and 6 out of 10 would consider having a pet sitter provide company for their dog when they were at work.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


4. While there are currently eight businesses offering pet sitting in West Vancouver, only three of these offer on-site pet care and none offers onpet visit services for working pet owners. 5. Pet Grandmas marketing strategy is to emphasize the quality of pet care we provide (a Grandma for your pet!) and the availability of our services. Dog owners who work, for instance, will come home to find happy, friendly companions who have already been exercised and walked rather than demanding whiny animals.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


6. All pet services will be provided by staff trained in animal care. On start up we will have six trained staff to provide pet services and expect to hire four more this year once financing is secured. To begin with, co-owner Pat Simpson will be coscheduling appointments and coordinating services, but we plan to hire a full-time fullreceptionist this year as well.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


7. The management of Pet Grandma consists of coco-owners Pat Simpson and Terry Estelle. Pat has extensive experience in animal care while Terry has worked in sales and marketing for 15 years. Both partners will be taking hands-on handsmanagement roles in the company. In addition, we have assembled a board of advisors to provide management expertise. The advisors are: Juliette LeCroix, partner at LeCroix LeCroix, Accounting, Carey Boniface, veterinarian and partner at Little Tree Animal Care Clinic, John Toms, president of Toms Communications Ltd.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


8. Based on the size of our market and our defined market area, our sales projections for the first year are $340,000. The salary for each of the co-owners will be $40,000. co9. We are seeking an operating line of $150,000 to finance our first year growth. Together, the co-owners have invested co$62,000 to meet working capital requirements.

Pet Grandma Executive Summary Example


10. Already we have service commitments from over 40 clients and plan to aggressively build our client base through newspaper, local television and direct mail advertising. The loving on-site professional oncare that Pet Grandma will provide is sure to appeal to cat and dog owners throughout the West Vancouver area.

Executive Summary
 a description of your company, including your       
products and/or services your mission statement your businesss management the market and your customer marketing and sales your competition your businesss operations financial projections and plans

Introduction
Include the following: 1. Background: Background: Describe events leading up to the problem or need 2. Problem or purpose: State the need that motivated the report what the main question is that your report will answer.

Introduction
3. Significance: Significance: Explain why the topic is important. You may wish to quote experts or cite newspapers, books and other secondary sources to establish the importance of the topic. Give the reader a road map that previews the structure of the report.

Introduction
4. Authorisation. Authorisation. Identify who commissioned the report. If no letter of transmittal is included. Also tell why, when, by whom, and to whom the report has been written.

Introduction
5. Literature review Summarise what other authors and researchers have published on this topic Describe your secondary sources Explain how you collected primary data.

Introduction
6. Definitions of key terms. terms. Define words that may be unfamiliar to the audience. Define terms with special meanings

Body
 The body should deal with facts  It presents, discusses, and analyses the research
findings.

 *the body does not carry the heading


body.it carries headings such as:
 Results of the Survey  Analysis of Findings, Findings,  Discussion

Body
 This section is usually the longest part of
the report.  The material must be presented logically.  The type of headings you use to organise the information in the body of your report will depend on the purpose of the report you are preparing.

Body
 Make sure the headings and sub-headings subyou choose are informative.  Headings should be specific and descriptive NOT vague and general  A good rule of thumb is that the heading should be "long enough to be an inclusive label but short enough to be immediately clear"

Body
 You should also try to make headings grammatically and
logically consistent for example, if your main heading was
Types of Schemas

and your subheadings under this section were:


Schemas for Scenes Schemas for Events Schemas for Stories Problems and their Schemas

it would be much better to change the final subheading to


Schemas for Problems

so that consistency in your headings is maintained.

Body
 Also avoid using headings that are catchy
rather than informative; for example, the following subheadings, although catchy and cute, detract from the serious informative intent of the following report.

Example
 4. Key products and services of the McDonald's
corporation
The following outline of McDonald's key products and services will thoroughly examine all aspects of consumer buyer behaviour ..

 4.1 The Big Mac: two all beef patties, special sauce,
lettuce, cheese, pickles and onions on a sesame seed bun!
The Big Mac hamburger brand was introduced to the McDonalds's product range in 1968 and has worldwide recognition. The longevity, popularity and recognisability of this product impact on consumer buying behaviour in several ways..

 4.2 McFlurry: just like a snowstorm in


your mouth!
The McFlurry is a relatively new item to the McDonald's product range and as such it is relevant to analyse several different aspects of consumer buyer behaviour such as ..

Body
 Expands and develops the material in a
logical and coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in the Introduction.  It contains a description of the findings and a discussion of them. It should also relate the findings to any theory of relevance.

Questions that the body should answer


 What were the most significant findings or
factors involved in the topic/ problem?  Did the findings support the theory?  Have you found some disagreement with the theory?  Did you uncover any unexpected or new issues that need to be considered?

Tables, graphs or figures


Only include those that are essential for reader understanding, the rest can be placed in an appendix that is referred to in the text; for example:
Appendix C contains the YoY predicted growth in shareholder accounts for the company.

Tables, graphs or figures


 Figures essential to the report should be
smoothly and correctly integrated and should be explained and referred to in the main body of the report.

Tables, graphs or figures


 First lead into the figure by telling the
reader what to focus on in the figure

 Then lead out of the figure perhaps by


linking the important point that was illustrated to the next salient point

Example

Tables, graphs or figures


 Figures that are supportive rather than essential
to your explanation can be placed in the appendix section so that the continuity of your writing is not broken up  If a figure such as a table of data is essential for understanding but is very lengthy, you may wish to include an excerpt of the most relevant part of the figure in the text and the full figure in an appendix.

Tables, graphs or figures


 It is important that you do discuss the
information represented in the diagrams, tables, graphs, charts and maps and not just let them 'speak for themselves'.

Tables, graphs or figures


 A good rule of thumb is to produce text and
figures that can both stand alone: the text should be readable without figures, and vice versa.

 In your discussion of the information


represented in the figures you should highlight information which you consider significant, point out trends or relationships or compare data presented in separate figures

Example

The Keeling plant's production capacity was reached in May this year. In contrast, the Hergort plant has not yet reached 75% of its production capacity (see Table 13).

Tables, graphs or figures


 Make sure the figure is worthwhile.  The figure is not meant to make your point
but to illustrate, emphasise and supplement it

Charts and graphs


 A chart is a diagram that makes
information easier to understand by showing how two or more sets of data are related. There are two common types of charts, a pie chart and a bar chart and there are graphs .

Charts and graphs


 A Bar chart is a diagram that makes information
easier to understand by showing how two or more sets of data are related.  A Pie chart is a circle divided into segments. It is usually used to show percentages.  A Graph is a diagram, usually a line or curve, which shows how two or more sets of numbers or measurements are related.

Language of charts and graphs


When describing movements on a graph, we can use verbs to talk about upward, downward or horizontal movements.

      

Decline, decrease, drop, fall, slide Climb, rise, increase Soar, rocket, climb, rise, increase Crash, collapse, plummet, plunge flatten out, hold steady, level off, stabilise Bounce, back, rally, recover fluctuate

Language of charts and graphs


Most verbs also have noun forms. They are generally the same, for example: to climb - a climb to fall - a fall However, there are some exceptions: To flatten out a flattening out To stabilise a stabilisation To level off a stabilisation To fluctuate a fluctuation To recover a recovery To hold steady a steady hold  NOTE: The verb form is more frequently used.

Language of charts and graphs


 Sometimes we need to give more
information about a trend, usually about the degree or speed of change. For example:
 The year started with a steady decline in sales and
stabilised in September.  Sales increased slowly during January and then declined steadily until the end of the financial year.

Language of charts and graphs


 Adverbs and adjectives can be used to
modify verbs and nouns of change. Adverbs can modify the verbs of change and usually end in 'ly' (to increase substantially), and adjectives can modify nouns of change (a substantial increase). Adjectives always come before a noun and adverbs usually come after a verb. Some words to describe the DEGREE of change:

Language of charts and graphs


 dramatic(ally), sharp(ly) Strong change  substantial(ly), considerable/considerably,
significant(ly) Intermediate change

 slight(ly) small change

Language of charts and graphs


 rapid(ly), swift(ly), quick(ly) Fast change  gradual(ly), steady/steadily Moderate
change

 slow(ly) slow change

Exercise
1. Sales. to 30% last month.

2. Sales at 60 million and then ..in July. 3. Profit at 40% last year.

Exercise
4. Sales of the new product unfortunately in May.

5. In the last six months sales.

6. Things looked bad at the beginning of the year, but in March sales began to ..

Answers
1.

Salesrose/increased/went Salesrose/increased/went up. to 30% last month.

2. Sales peakedat 60 million peakedat and then fell/decreased/went down/dropped ..in July. 3. Profitlevelled off at 40% last year. Profitlevelled 4. Sales of the new product unfortunatelyplummeted in May. unfortunatelyplummeted 5. In the last six months sales have fluctuated 6. Things looked bad at the beginning of the year, but in March sales began to recover.

Exercise
Decide whether the following statements represent No movement at all, a Slow movement or a Rapid movement. Write N, S or R

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The plummeting dollar has boosted American exports. Sales have been stagnant There has been a surge in a number of complaints Imports have risen somewhat There has been a slight increase in production costs The glut in the market has caused prices to slump Home sales have slipped back Prices are likely to remain steady overall The price of gold eased back by the end of the day to 423 dollars an ounce 10. Coffee futures edged up yesterday 11. Euro-Disney shares went up sharply to 113p Euro-

Answers
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
The plummeting dollar has boosted American exports. R Sales have been stagnant. N There has been a surge in a number of complaints. R Imports have risen somewhat. S There has been a slight increase in production costs. S The glut in the market has caused prices to slump. R Home sales have slipped back. S Prices are likely to remain steady overall. N The price of gold eased back by the end of the day to 423 dollars an ounce. S 10. Coffee futures edged up yesterday. S 11. Euro-Disney shares went up sharply to 113p. R Euro-

Conclusions
 For busy readers; so it has to be well written!  The Conclusion should give the main cause(s)
of the problem or opportunity that is the topic of the report

 The section should summarise the main findings


and link to the Recommendations.  It should not include findings that are not related to the Recommendations.

Recommendations
 After the Conclusion and before any
appendices.

 Introductory sentence or paragraph linking them


back to the Conclusion and outlining the areas . to them.

 Numbered so that it is easy for readers to refer  Sub-headings so that it is easy for readers to Subfind the right one;

Recommendations
 Refer back to the issue that is addressed:
In the light of , In view of , Given that , Due the fact that , In view of the fact that , Since to

 Use modal verbs such as should and could:


Should is for recommendations that you are sure about. Could is for ones that you are less sure about.

Recommendations
 make precise suggestions for actions to solve
the report problem.

 they should evolve from the findings and


conclusions.

 Start your recommendations as follows:


The findings and conclusions in this study support the following recommendations. recommendations.

Recommendations
 It is suggested that we should change our procedures  Avoid: We recommend to change our procedures; procedures;
USE: Investment International recommend changing our changing procedures OR: We recommend that we change our procedures.

Recommendations
 To describe the results of your recommendations, use
would or will if you are very confident

 would and will can be part of conditional sentences;


e.g. or If we increase advertising, sales will increase. If we increased advertising, sales increased would increase.

 Dont use 'Because' as the first word in a sentence: it's


bad style. USE: 'Due to...';
'Owing to ...'; 'As...'

Thumb rules for recommendations


 Longer than the Conclusion, but shorter than the    
Findings. Business recommendations should be ethical. Business recommendations should be legal. Recommendations should be suitable for the company culture. Clear, concise, and correct.

Works Cited, References, or Bibliography

 A bibliography entry  A reference

Charts/Graphs/Maps/Tables
School life expectancy (in years). Primary to tertiary education Country or area Year Total Men Women

Afghanistan

2004

11

Albania

2004

11

11

11

Algeria

2005

13

13

13

Anguilla

2006

11

11

11

Andorra

2006

11

11

11

Argentina

2006

16

15

17

a=national estimation, b= UIS estimation Source: School Life Expectancy (in years). Primary to Tertiary Education.United Nations Statistics Division.

Charts/Graphs/Maps/Tables
School Life Expectancy (in years). Primary to Tertiary Education. Table. United Nations Statistics Division. United Nations. 9 July 2009 <http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/socind /education.htm>. Start with Source: Give the name or title of the chart, graph, map or table State whether the mentioned source is a chart, graph, map or table Provide the title of the book or website Write down the name of the institution or organisation sponsoring or associated with the site Show your access date End with the full URL

      

Direct Quotations
 Copy ONE OR TWO sentence into your report directly
EX.  Plagiarism is almost always seen as a shameful act, and plagiarists are usually regarded with pity and scorn. (Gibaldi, 66)

 OR
Plagiarism is as old as writing itself and is almost always seen as a shameful act, (Gibaldi, 66) because plagiarists seem to be unable to come up with ideas of their own.

Indirect quotation
Plagiarism is as old as writing itself and has been considered as a shameful behaviour (Gibaldi, 66) because plagiarists seem to be unable to come up with ideas of their own. According to Gibaldi plagiarism is as old as writing itself and has been considered as a shameful behaviour (Gibaldi, 66) because plagiarists seem to be unable to come up with ideas of their own.

Compiling Bibliography Entries


 Books  Articles  Internet

BOOKS
1. Authors full name (last name first) 2. Full title of the book (including any subtitle) 3. Edition (if it is a second or later or revised edition; otherwise leave out) 4. City of publication 5. Publisher 6. Year of publication

EXAMPLE
 Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook of Writers
of Research Papers. 6th edn. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2003.

 Murphy, Raymond. English Grammar In


Use. Use. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

ARTICLES
1. Authors name 2. Title of the article 3. Title of the journal/magazine/newspaper 4. Volume/issue number (if present) 5. Year/date of publication (exact date if no volume or issue number exists) 6. Page numbers that the article is on

EXAMPLES
 Alexander, C.P. The Declining Dollar: Not a
Simple Cure. Time .16 November 1987: 24-28. 24-

 Hanks, Patrick. Do Word Meanings Exist?


Computers and the Humanities 34 (2000): 205205215.

 Jeromack, Paul. This Once, a David of the Art


World Does Goliath a Favor. New York Times 13 July 2002, late ed.: B7+

INTERNET
1. Authors name 2. Title of the document (if any) 3. Title of the website 4. Date/year of electronic publication (if given) 5. Name of the institution or organisation sponsoring or associated with the site (if applicable) 6. Date when you accessed the source 7. Full URL

EXAMPLE
Thomas, Heather. Power & Government. Queen Elizabeth I (1533-1603) (1533(2008) 19 May 2009. <http://elizabethi.org/uk/power>.

Two or more Authors


 Thill, John V., and Bove, Courtland L.
Excellence in Business Communication. 5th Communication. edn. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002.

 Thompson, P. and Martinez, J. Effective

Business Correspondence. 1st edn. La Jolla, Correspondence. California: Pearson Educational Publisher, 2008.

Use the last name of the first author only.

Unknown Authors
web Most often web-based  Problematic for your bibliography  Look then for the next best thing e.g. institute or company  Do not use the, a or an for sorting alphabetically.  If no mention is made of any kind of institute, company or project then start with the name of the article (or, lacking that, name of the book, magazine, journal or website)

EXAMPLE
Royal Household, The. Buckingham Palace. The Official Website of the British Monarchy (2008/09).14 July 2009. <http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalResi dences/BuckinghamPalace/Buckinghm Palace.aspx>.

Appendix
 Incidental or supporting materials;  especially repetitive or lengthy information;  validate your conclusions or pursues a related point

should be placed in an appendix (plural appendices).  Sometimes part of the data set will be placed in the body of the report but the complete set of information ( i.e. all of the data set) will be included in the appendix.  Examples : figures/tables/charts/graphs of results, statistics, questionnaires, transcripts of interviews, pictures, lengthy derivations of equations, maps, drawings, letters, specification or data sheets, computer program information.

Appendix
 There is no limit  However, must be directly related to the research problem or the
report's purpose. It must be a useful tool for the reader  Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix B1, Appendix B2, Appendix C, etc).  The order they are presented in is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of the report.  It is essential to refer to each appendix within the text of the report; ex. For the manufacturer's specification, see Appendix B or Appendix C contains the YoY shareholder account growth rates. The rates are high. The increasing growth rate of accounts will significantly affect the valuation of the company.

Language of the Report


Use formal language.

 Use of passive voice  Few personal pronouns  Neutral verbs are used, i.e. non-emotive nonverbs

What makes something informal?


Do NOT use informal language

 Use of active voice  Use of personal pronouns, e.g. I, you, we  Verbs that show feelings, e.g. I think, we
feel, I am pleased

Active versus passive voice


The active voice :  It is direct and lets the reader know who is doing the action.

 It focuses on the subject and the action. action.  It is often used in informal communication,
e.g. personal letters.

Active versus passive voice


The passive voice is used to:  Focus on issues / information / processes rather than the subject or doer of the action.

 Avoid a personal tone and eliminate the


use of personal pronouns, e.g. I, you and we.

Clear & concise verbs


 In reports, it is important that your writing does
not sound too casual.

 The use of clear and concise verbs instead of


verb phrases is one way of making your writing more formal.

 Moreover, using concise verbs help improve the


clarity and effectiveness of your writing

Exercise: Identify the phrasal verbs and give the formal alternative
1. Data management systems can help out users to 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
diagnose problems. Research expenditure has gone up to nearly 350 million Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effect. Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years. The issue was brought up during the investigation. Engineers can come up with better designs using CAD The program was set up to improve access to medical care.

Answers
1. Data management systems can assist users to 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
diagnose problems. Research expenditure has increased to nearly 350 million Researchers have determined/discovered that this drug has serious side effect. Researchers have been investigating this problem for 15 years. The issue was raised during the investigation. Engineers can create better designs using CAD The program was established/initiated to improve access to medical care.

Use of pronouns

 It makes your writing more


personal and informal.

 It is as though you are talking

directly to the person yourself not professional

Compare

We have estimated that approximately 80% of SMS text messages are sent by people under the age of 30.

It has been estimated that approximately 80% of SMS text messages are sent by people under the age of 30.

Exercises
1. We have analysed the research data 2. We consider that price competitiveness
is also a key marketing strategy. 3. We predict significant growth in the offshore agricultural market. 4. We do not know when we will complete the project.

Answers
1. The research data has been analysed 2. Price competitiveness is also considered
a key marketing strategy 3. Significant growth is predicted in the offshore agricultural market 4. It is not known when the project will be completed.

How to write paragraphs


What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a series of sentences about a single topic, idea or theme. A paragraph has a clear and simple structure. It contains three elements:

 topic sentence,  supporting sentences  and a concluding sentence

Structure of a paragraph
 a topic sentence: beginning (or end, rarely
in the middle)

 supporting sentences giving additional

information; e.g. explanation, elaboration, providing example, contrasting etc.

 a concluding sentence sums up; so, no


new ideas here!

Topic sentence
Decide what the paragraph is going to be about, and write a general statement about it. It has to be inclusive; it has to cover every aspect you are discussing in your paragraph.

Supporting sentences
Outline points that will support the topic sentence. A paragraph should generally be less than 12 lines. If it has more, check to see if there is more than one topic, and break the paragraph into 2. Place each point in a sentence and use evidence, references etc to support the argument.

Concluding sentence
Write a final sentence that concludes or summarizes the paragraph. The main point can be restated again for emphasis. Try to paraphrase; use other words to sum up your paragraph

Example
There are severe health hazards directly linked to smoking. The link between smoking and cancer is well known. However, smoking is linked to other diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis. It is also proven that smokers have an increased chance of developing heart disease later in life. In the USA, smokers have been awarded damages from tobacco companies in recent court cases. Further there is evidence that even passive smoking can lead to increased health risks. Clearly, smoking is a dangerous habit and should be avoided.

Identify the topic sentence in the following examples


1. The internet is a useful educational tool. Students can find and access information from around the world with the click of a button. Many libraries subscribe to electronic databases and e-journals, which emakes it easy to access resources from home. Students can even undertake courses in other countries. The internet truly offers students the opportunity to have a global education

2. A paragraph is a group of connected sentences that develops a single idea or theme. It has a topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph is going to be about. It has other supporting sentences that go on to further develop the central idea or theme. The sentences need to be coherently and cohesively linked together. Paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay.

3. Students often think multiple choice questions are easy so they dont need to study. However, multiple choice questions have a number of challenges associated with them. Firstly, the questions are often wide ranging and sometimes not arranged in any particular sequence, perhaps even covering a whole years work. Secondly, the questions may reword the ideas you learned in class in a different way. Thirdly, multiple choice questions often include negative statements or distracters, or deliberately confusing choices. Furthermore, they are not necessarily a test of simple recognition of basic ideas as you often need to use many ideas to answer one question. For example, you may need to answer a problem solving question which covers applying knowledge from a number of topics. Clearly it is not enough to be familiar with the subject matter to do well in multiple choice questions, you really need to understand the subject.

Answers
1. The internet is a useful educational tool. Students can 2.
find and access information from around the world with the click of a button. A paragraph is a group of connected sentences that develops a single idea or theme. It has a topic sentence that tells the reader what the paragraph is going to be about. Students often think multiple choice questions are easy so they dont need to study. However, multiple choice questions have a number of challenges associated with them. Firstly, the questions are often wide ranging and sometimes not arranged in any particular sequence, perhaps even covering a whole years work.

3.

Analyse
Leadership qualities are a prerequisite for achievement in coaching. A leader is one who is respected for what he says and does, and who is admired by his team. The coach gains respect by giving respect, and by possessing knowledge and skills associated with the sport. There are many successful coaches who are domineering, forceful leaders, gaining power more through fear and even hatred than through respect. These military-type men are primarily militaryfrom the old school of thought, and many younger coaches are achieving their goals through more humanistic approaches.

Answer
Leadership qualities are a prerequisite for achievement in coaching. A leader is one who is respected for what he says and does, and who is admired by his team. The coach gains respect by giving respect, and by possessing knowledge and skills associated with the sport. There are many successful coaches who are domineering, forceful leaders, gaining power more through fear and even hatred than through respect. These military-type men are primarily from the old school militaryof thought, and many younger coaches are achieving their goals through more humanistic approaches.

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