Sheet Metal Forming

2.810 Fall 2002

Professor Tim Gutowski
Minoan gold pendant of bees encircling the Sun,
showing the use of granulation, from a tomb at Mallia,
17th century BC. In the Archaeological Museum,
Irklion, Crete.
Historical Note;
Sheet metal stamping was developed as a mass
production technology for the production of
bicycles around the 1890s. This technology
played an important role in making the system
of interchangeable parts economical (perhaps
for the first time).
Steps in making Hub Steps in Sprocket making
Stress Strain diagram
materials selection
Basic Sheet Forming Processes
(from http://www.menet.umn.edu/~klamecki/Forming/mainforming.html)
Shearing
Bending
Drawing
Shear and corner press
Brake press
Finger press
Shearing Operation Force
Requirement
Die
Sheet
Punch
T
D
Part or slug
F = 0.7 T L (UTS)
T = Sheet Thickness
L = Total length Sheared
UTS = Ultimate Tensile Strength of material
Yield Criteria

Y
Y/2
Tresca
Mises

max
= (2/3)
1/2
Y

max
= (1/2) Y
Schematic of a Blanked
Edge
Bending Force
Requirement
Punch
Workpiece
T
Die
L
Force
T = Sheet Thickness
W = Total Width
Sheared
(into the page)
L =Span length
UTS = Ultimate Tensile
Strength of material
Engineering Strain during Bending: e = 1/((2R/T) + 1)
R = Bend radius
Minimum Bend radius: R = T ((50/r) 1)
r = tensile area reduction
in percent
) (
2
UTS
L
WT
F
Stress distribution through the
thickness of the part

y
Y
Y
-Y

h
-Y
Y
Elastic Elastic-plastic Fully plastic
Springback

Over-bend

Bottom

Stretch
tension
compression
Pure Bending
Bending & Stretching
Stretch Forming
Loading
Pre-stretching
Wrapping Release
* source: http://www.cyrilbath.com/sheet_process.html
Stretch Forming
Stretch forming
Stretch Forming Force
Requirement
F = (Y
S
+ UTS)/2 * A
F = stretch forming force (lbs)
Y
S
= material yield strength (psi)
UTS = ultimate tensile strength of the material (psi)
A = Cross-sectional area of the workpiece (in
2
)
Example of Force Calculation
Calculate the force required to stretch form a wing span having a
cross-sectional area of .50X120 made from 2219 aluminum alloy
having a yield strength of 36,000 psi and a UTS of 52,000 psi:
F = 88000/2 * 60 = 2,640,000 lbs = 1320 tons
Calculate the force required to shear a 10 diameter, 1/8 thick
blank from mild steel with a UTS of 45,000 psi:
F = 0.7 (.125)( )(10) 45,000 = 62 tons
Auto body panels
10 - 11 panels

3 to 5 dies each

~$0.5M each

~$20M investment
Tooling for Automotive Stamping
Machines
Material Selection
Material selection is critical in both product and process
design.
Formability is the central material property.
This property must be balanced with other product and
process considerations such as strength, weight, cost, and
corrosion resistance.
Auto vs. Aerospace Example
Auto Body Panel Airplane Body Panel
Progressive stamping stretch forming
1010 Steel, cold-rolled 2024 Aluminum, T3
temper
.04 sheet, custom order .08 sheet,
oversize
Double-sided Zinc clad mechanically polished
Cost ~ $.35-.45/lb Cost ~ $4.0/lb
UTS ~ 300 MPa UTS ~ 470 MPa
YS ~ 185 MPa YS ~ 325 MPa
Elongation ~ 42% Elongation ~ 20%
n = .26 n = .16
Comparison of
representative Parts: Aero
and Auto
Auto Aero
Part Description Body Panel Body Panel
54"X54" 54"X54"
Forming Process Progressive Stamping Stretch Forming
MATERIAL
Material
1010 Steel, cold-rolled,
.04" sheet, custom order
double-sided Zinc clad
2024 Aluminum, T3
temper, .08" sheet,
oversize mechanically
polished
Scrap 40% 20%
Material Cost $0.45/lb $4.00/lb
Per part $15.75 $105.00
LABOR
Set-up Time 1.5hr 1.0hr
Parts/Run 2,000 30
Cycle Time 0.25 min 2.5 min
Total Labor 0.30 min 4.5 min
Labor Rate** $20.00/hr $20.00/hr
Stretch-Form Labor Cost $0.10 $1.50
FIXED
Equipment $5,000,000 $1,000,000
Tools/Dies $900,000 $45,000
(200 manhours labor)
TOTAL TRANSFER COST $25 $265
Parts
Receive
d
Mylar
Protection
Applied
Burr
Edges in
tension
Stretch
Formin
g
Index
to
Block
Burr
Edges and
Inspect
Han
d
Trim
Chemic
al
Milling
Aerospace Stretch Forming Body Panel Process
Clad and
Prime
Surfaces
Process Flow for Automobile Door Stamping Operation
Raw
material
Blank material
starting
dimensions
Drawin
g
Pierce
Flange Restrik
e
Design: Stretch Forming
vs. Stamping
Stretch Forming Advantages over Stamping

Tighter tolerances are possible: as tight as .0005 inches on large

aircraft parts

Little problem with either wrinkling or spring back

Large, gently contoured parts from thin sheets

Stretch forming Disadvantages over Stamping

Complex or sharply cornered shapes are difficult or impossible

to form

Material removal blanking, punching, or trimming requires

secondary operations

Requires special preparation of the free edges prior to forming

Springback
Elastic Springback
Analysis
L
x
y
h
b
1. Assume plane sections remain plane:

y
= - y/ (1)
2. Assume elastic-plastic behavior for material
M
= 1/K
M
y

Y
= E <

Y
>
M
1/

EI
1/
Y
M
Y
Loading
EI Unloading
1/R
0
1/R
1
3. We want to construct the following
Bending Moment M vs. curvature 1/ curve
Springback is measured as 1/R
0
1/R
1
(2)
Permanent set is 1/R
1
4. Stress distribution through the thickness of the beam

y
Y
Y
-Y

h
-Y
Y
Elastic Elastic-plastic Fully plastic
5. M =
A
y dA
Elastic region
At the onset of plastic behavior
= - y/ E = - h/2 E = -Y (4)
Y
This occurs at
1/ = 2Y / hE = 1/
Y
(5)
d
y
dA
b
h
dy
Substitution into eqn (3) gives us the moment at
on-set of yield, M
Y
M
Y
= - EI/
Y
= EI 2Y / hE = 2IY/h (6)
After this point, the M vs 1/r curve starts to bend
over. Note from M=0 to M=M
Y
the curve is linear.

EI
dA
y
E ydA M

2
(3)
In the elastic plastic region

y
Y
Y
Yb y y
h
Yb
y
b
y
Y y
Yb
Ybydy
y
y
Ybydy ybdy M
Y Y
y
Y
h
y
h
y
y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
2 2
2
0
3
2 /
2
2 /
0
3
2
)
4
(
3
2
2
2
2 2
+
+
+

]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

2
2
2 / 3
1
1
4 h
y
Y
bh
M
Y
Note at y
Y
=h/2, you get on-set at yield, M = M
Y
And at y
Y
=0, you get fully plastic moment, M = 3/2 M
Y
(7)
To write this in terms of M vs 1/ rather than M vs y
Y
,
note that the yield curvature (1/ )
Y
can be written
as (see eqn (1))
2 /
1
h
Y
Y

(8)
Where
Y
is the strain at yield. Also since the
strain at y
Y
is -
Y
, we can write
Y
Y
y

1
(9)
Combining (8) and (9) gives

1
) 1 (
2 /
Y Y
h
y

(10)
Substitution into (7) gives the result we seek:
]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

2
1
) 1 (
3
1
1
2
3

Y
Y
M M (11)
M
1/

EI
1/
Y
M
Y
Loading
EI Unloading
1/R
0
1/R
1
Eqn(11)
Elastic unloading
curve
]
]
]

1
1 1
) 1 ( R
M
M
Y
Y

(12)
Now, eqns (12) and (13) intersect at 1/ = 1/R
0
Hence,
]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|

]
]
]

2
0 1 0
1
) 1 (
3
1
1
2
3 1 1
) 1 ( R
M
R R
M
Y
Y
Y
Y

Rewriting and using 1/ = 2Y / hE, we get

3
2
0
1 0
4 3
1 1

,
`

.
|

]
]
]

hE
Y
R
hE
Y
R R
(13)
New developments
Tailored blanks
Binder force control
Segmented dies
Quick exchange of dies
Alternative materials; cost issues
-
SHAPE
MEASUREMENT
SHAPE
CONTROLLER
WORKPIECE
desired
shape
+
shape
error
finished
part
DISCRETE DIE
SURFACE
DISCRETE DIE
FORMING PRESS
CONTROLLER
TRACING CMM
Part Error
Die Shape
Change
New
Part
Shape
The Shape Control
Concept
Conventional Tooling
Tool
Pallet
Parking Lot
60 Ton Matched Discrete
Die Press(Robinson et al,
1987)
Tool Setup
Actuators
Programmable
Tool
Passive
Tool
Press Motion
Cylindrical Part Error
Reduction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
P1 P2 P3 P4
PART CYCLE
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
R
M
S

E
r
r
o
r

[
x
0
.
0
0
1

i
n
.
]
MAX
RMS
S SY YS ST TE EM M E ER RR RO OR R T TH HR RE ES SH HO OL LD D
M
A
X
I
M
A
L

S
H
A
P
E

E
R
R
O
R
[
x
0
.
0
0
1

i
n
.
]
Large Scale Tool
6 feet
Stretch Forming with Reconfigurable
Tool @ Northrop Grumman
Stamping and TPS:
Quick Exchange of Dies
Ref. Shigeo Shingo, A Revolution in Manufacturing:
The SMED System Productivity Press. 1985

Simplify, Organize, Standardize,

Eliminate Adjustments,

Convert Internal to External Set-Ups

Standard fixtures
Alternative materials for
auto body panels
Comparison
Steel Vs SMC
$0.35/lb
0.03 thick
7.6 lb
40% scrap
$4.25 matl cost
400/hr
5 workers
$18.90/hr (Union)
$0.24 labor cost
$5,000,000 equipment
$900,000 tools
$7.71 unit cost at 100,000 units
$0.65/lb
.0.12 thick
7.0 lb
6% scrap
$4.84 matl cost
40/hr
$12.50/hr (non-Union)
$0.63 labor cost
$1,200,000 eqipment
$250,000 tools
$7.75 unit cost at 100,000 units
Ref John Busch
Cost comparison between sheet
steel and plastics and
composites for automotive
panels ref John Busch
Environment
punching Vs machining
hydraulic fluids and lubricants
scrap
energy
painting, cleaning
Steel can production at Toyo
Seikan
See Appendix D; http://itri.loyola.edu/ebm/
Summary
Note on Historical Development
Materials and Basic Mechanics
Aerospace and Automotive Forming
New Developments
Environmental Issues
Solidworks and Metal Forming your
Chassis
Readings
1. Sheet Metal Forming Ch. 16 Kalpakjian (3
rd
ed.)
2. Economic Criteria for Sensible Selection of Body
Panel Materials John Busch and Jeff Dieffenbach
3. Handout from Shigeo Shingo, The SMED System
4. Steps to Building a Sheet Metal Chassis for your
2.810 Car Using Solidworks, by Eddy Reif
5. Design for Sheetmetal Working, Ch. 9 Boothroyd,
Dewhurst and Knight